AGRIC,  DEPT. 


Serl 


nes 


Part  I. 


Correspondence 

Agricultural 

College 

City, 


5F65 

LECTURE  XXVI. 


POINTS  TO    BE  OBSERVED    IN   THE   PREPARATION   AND 
FITTING  OF  CATTLE  FOR  THE  SHOW  RING. 

The  first  and  most  important  step  is  to  have  the  right 
kind  of  an  animal.  It  matters  little  what  you  feed  if  you 
have  not  the  right  kind  of  beast  to  consume  it,  success  will 
not  come  your  way.  Thus,  before  commencing  the  training 
and  feeding  you  must  determine  whether  or  not  the  merits 
of  the  animal  are  such  as  to  justify  the  owner  to  lavish  the 
expense  and  trouble  necessary  to  bring  him  out  a  prize  win- 
ner in  first-class  company.  If  you  are  doubtful,  better  to 
throw  him  out  at  once,  but  if  it  is  in  the  animal,  go  at  him 
and  lose  no  time  in  sending  him  to  the  very  highest  degree 
of  perfection. 

Conformation.  Without  good  conformation  it  is  impos- 
sible to  make  a  good  show  animal.  The  feet  and  legs  must 
be  right,  bone  of  good  size,  clean  cut  and  joints  well  defined. 
The  legs  should  be  straight  and  well  set  under  the  body. 
The  head  should  be  short  and  broad,  possessing  a  sweet  coun- 
tenance. The  shoulders  should  be  smooth  and  well  laid  in  so 
as  to  leave  no  depression  behind  them  which  would  indicate 
coarseness  or  lack  of  chest  capacity.  The  ribs  should  be  of 
good  length  and  well  arched  so  as  to  insure  width  of  back 
and  depth  of  body.  The  loin  should  be  broad,  the  flank  well 
let  down,  the  hindquarters  long,  broad  and  well  filled  in  the 
thighs  and  twist.  The  skin  should  be  loose,  and  covered  with 
a  good  thick  coat  of  mossy  hair. 

Feeding.  It  is  difficult  to  outline  any  method  of  feeding 
which  will  meet  the  needs  of  all  animals.  The  wise  and  suc- 
cessful feeder  will  study  the  individual  likes  and  dislikes  of 
his  animals  and  administer  feed  accordingly.  In  feeding 
show  cattle  there  is  but  one  real  object  in  view,  which  is  to 
present  the  animal  in  the  best  possible  bloom  at  show  time. 
Labor  and  cost  of  feed  are  of  minor  consideration  to  the 
ambitious  and  successful  showman.  In  feeding  steers  for  the 


128 


MANAGEMENT. 

PC^  a  da^  is  regarded  by  many 
men  as  sufficient.  The  successful  fitter  of  show  cattle  feeds 
little  at  a  time  and  often.  That  prince  of  cattle  fitters,  the 
late  "Willie"  Watson,  fed  four  times  a  day,  viz.:  at  5  a.  m., 
at  11  a.  m.,  at  4  p.  m.,  and  at  8  p.  m. 

Always  feed  a  variety  of  food.  Cutting,  chopping,  grind- 
ing and  steaming  may  not  be  practical  in  cattle  feeding  oper- 
ations, but  they  can  all  be  practiced  to  good  advantage  in  the 
feeding  of  show  stock.  They  not  only  stimulate  the  appetite 
of  the  animal,  but  they  also  save  labor  in  mastication.  Every 
half  hour  saved  in  feeding  is  just  so  much  added  to  rest  —  a 
most  important  consideration  in  fattening  cattle.  The  feed 
troughs  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  especially  in 
warm  weather,  as  fermentation  will  soon  take  place.  The 
health  of  the  animal  must  be  carefully  watched.  The  slight- 
est indication  of  dullness  or  delicacy  of  appetite  should  be 
noted.  Should  sickness  appear,  avoid  as  much  as  possible 
the  use  of  medicine  and  cure-alls.  Overfeeding  and  irregular 
feeding  is  generally  the  cause  of  sickness  in  pampered  ani- 
mals. In  such  cases  a  good  dose  of  linseed  oil  will  usually 
give  relief,  but  dieting  is  the  surest  and  most  effective 
method  of  combating  such  troubles.  Keep  the  animals 
short  of  feed  for  a  day  or  two  and  they  will  soon  return  to 
their  normal  state.- 

In  our  work  we  always  aim  to  feed  a  variety  of  grain 
feed.  At  present  we  are  using  a  mixture  of  ground  cornr 
ground  oats,  ground  barley,  ground  wheat,  some  gluten  feed, 
bran,  and  flaxseed  meal.  In  addition  to  this,  roots  and  green 
forage  crops  should  be  fed  at  regular  intervals  to  keep  the 
digestive  system  in  regular  order. 

The  steamed  feed  can  oftentimes  be  used  to  good 
advantage.  Animals  inclined  to  be  soft  in  flesh  may  be  very 
much  improved  by  substituting  cooked  wheat  for  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  the  corn  ration.  Molasses  sprinkled  on  the 
chopped  grain  or  cut  fodder  will  have  a  good  influence  in 
making  the  ration  more  appetizing. 

Exercising.  Exercise  is  very  important.  Different  suc- 
cessful fitters  practice  somewhat  different  methods  of  secur- 
ing the  same.  Some  advocate  the  keeping  of  the  cattle  in 
box-stalls  during  the  day  in  warm  weather  and  allowing  them 
the  run  of  a  grass  lot  at  night.  The  disadvantages  of  such  a 
system  are  that  it  is  impossible  to  control  the  feed  of  the 


FITTING  CATTLE  FOR  SHOW  RING.  129 

animals;  also,  it  may  be  the  cause  of  great  bodily  waste  and 
loss  of  fat.  In  case  of  animals  which  are  badly  off  feed  or 
very  weak  in  their  legs  such  a  system  will  often  prove  very 
good.  The  other  system  is  to  keep  the  animals  in  comfort- 
able, roomy  box-stalls  all  the  time  except  for  a  couple  of 
hours  in  the  cool  of  the  evening  when  they  are  allowed  the 
run  of  an  open  lot  without  any  grass.  On  their  return  to 
the  stalls  they  are  given  their  evening  ration  and  left  to  rest 
during  the  night.  By  adopting  this  method  the  feeder  has 
complete  control  of  the  animal's  feed,  thus  is  not  likely  to 
be  troubled  with  bloat,  scours 'and  other  troubles  caused  by 
weeds  in  the  grass  lot,  or  too  much  washy  grass,  which  so 
often  mars  the  otherwise  keen  appetite.  They  should  always 
be  liberally  bedded  and  given  every  comfort  possible. 

Grooming.  This  is  a  most  necessary  part  of  the  care  of 
animals  intended  for  the  show  ring.  It  is  just  as  essential 
during  the  last  three  months  as  careful  feeding.  Cattle  which 
have  been  well  bedded  and  kept  clean  can  usually  be  gotten 
into  good  form  by  about  three  months  grooming.  It  is  half 
the  battle  in  showing  cattle  to  have  their  coats  in  good  con- 
dition, and  stock  owners  who  fail  to  have  their  cattle  in  the 
very  best  possible  form  need  not  expect  to  win  in  strong 
competition.  If  you  wish  to  shed  the  coat  this  may  be  done 
by  the  use  of  a  warm  blanket.  If  one  is  not  sufficient,  use 
two.  The  blankets  need  not  be  kept  on  except  during  the 
day.  In  addition  wash  the  animals  at  least  twice  a  week 
with  carbolic  soap  and  tepid  warm  water.  This  will  cleanse 
the  skin  and  do  away  with  all  dandruff  and  other  scurf.  In 
grooming  use  a  good,  soft  brush  and  a  piece  of  thick  flannel 
or  chamois  skin  and  the  skin  will  soon  become  soft  under 
this  treatment.  The  curry  comb,  if  used  at  all,  must  be  used 
very  lightly,  as  it  is  likely  to  scratch  and  irritate  the  skin. 
A  skillful  user  of  the  cloth  does  his  rubbing  in  a  quick  man- 
ner, as  then  it  is  much  more  effective.  Constant  use  of  a 
good  flannel  cloth  is  the  only  sure  and  safe  way  of  securing 
a  soft  and  shining  coat  of  hair.  In  putting  on  the  final  touch 
nothing  is  more  effective  than  the  use  of  the  bare  hand  in 
rubbing.  A  good  coat  of  hair  and  a  soft  mellow  touch  can- 
not be  secured  in  a  week.  It  will  take  at  least  two  or  three 
months  of  faithful  work.  In  this  connection  the  writer  once 
labored  for  six  months  to  secure  the  proper  bloom  on  a  year- 
ling bull.  It  came,  but  it  took  elbow  grease  and  persistence 
to  secure  the  velvet  touch. 


130  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

Trimming  the  Feet.  You  must  be  very  careful  about  the 
feet  of  your  show  animals.  Overgrown  hoofs  are  a  great 
eyesore  and  sooner  or  later  are  likely  to  throw  the  animals 
off  in  their  hocks  and  hind  legs.  They  should  be  frequently 
dressed,  kept  clean  and  in  good  shape.  The  following  tools 
have  been  used  by  the  writer  for  this  work:  a  heavy  wooden 
mallet,  an  inch  and  a  half  chisel,  a  blacksmith's  paring  knife, 
a  rasp  and  a  file.  By  the  careful  use  of  the  same  the  feet 
of  any  animal  may  be  kept  in  good  condition. 

Clipping.  The  appearance  of  the  head  and  neck  of  those 
animals  which  are  not  supposed  to  have  long  curly  hair,  may 
often  be  very  much  improved  by  the  judicious  use  of  the 
clippers  and  shears.  This  should  always  be  done  a  few 
weeks  before  the  show,  so  that  in  case  an  even  job  is  not 
made  in  removing  the  hair,  growth  enough  will  have  taken 
place  to  prevent  it  from  being  apparent  to  the  public.  The 
tail  should  always  be  clipped,  to  indicate  refinement.  Coarse 
hair  on  any  of  the  other  parts  may  be  removed  in  the  same 
way. 

Fixing  the  Horns.  The  horns  should  always  be  polished 
and  otherwise  fixed  so  as  to  present  a  neat  and  attractive 
appearance.  The  same  treatment  is  not  applicable  to  all 
horns,  as  some  are  much  more  delicate  than  others.  In  some 
horns  the  quick  is  very  close,  thus  care  must  be  exercised 
in  the  scraping  to  prevent  bleeding  or  the  weakening  of  the 
shell. 

If  the  horn  is  too  long,  the  first  step  will  be  to  shorten 
the  same.  This  should  be  done  with  a  fine-toothed  saw,  but 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut  too  deep.  Saw  off  the  amount 
you  think  necessary  to  make  the  horn  the  desired  length. 
After  the  cutting  is  done,  then  commence  and  file  the  horn 
at  the  point  to  its  natural  shape,  beginning  about  an  inch 
from  the  point  and  filing  from  the  outside  inwards,  making 
it  look  as  natural  as  possible  so  as  to  avoid  detection.  If 
the  animal  be  a  Shorthorn,  commence  filing  the  inside  of  the 
horn,  giving  it  a  flat  inside  appearance,  which  is  correct  in  a 
Shorthorn,  although  not  necessarily  in  all  horned  animals. 
Next  begin  at  the  outside,  smooth  and  round  it,  making  it 
blend  as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  already  dressed  inside. 
avoiding  anything  like  a  sharp  edge  along  the  top  of  the  horn. 
which  would  indicate  at  once  that  the  horns  had  been  fixed. 
If  you  are  real  careful  to  reduce  all  unnatural  sharp  edges 


FITTING  CATTLE  FOR  SHOW  RING.  131 

about  the  points  of  the  horns,  not  even  an  expert  will  be  able 
to  detect  your  handiwork. 

The  next  step  is  to  smooth  the  horn.  This  may  be  done 
by  first  taking  the  section  blade  of  a  mower  and  scrape  the 
horn  thoroughly  smooth.  A  piece  of  glass  may  be  used  to 
finish  smoothing  the  same.  For  a  final  finish  use  sand  paper 
of  the  different  grades  from  coarse  to  fine,  then  use  emery 
paper.  Then  take  a  piece  of  soft  cloth,  dip  the  same  into 
sweet  oil  and  rub  the  horns.  After  this  use  the  same  cloth 
to  apply  some  whitening  which,  when  rubbed  well,  will  leave 
a  beautifully  polished  and  handsomely  formed  horn.  A  piece 
of  oily  flannel  should  be  used  to  give  the  last  touch.  The 
hoofs  should  be  cleaned  in  the  same  way.  Before  entering 
the  show  ring,  rub  both  the  horns  and  the  hoofs  with  an  oily 
piece  of  flannel. 

Showing  in  the  Ring.  Before  leaving  home  you  should 
have  all  of  your  animals  taught  to  lead  well  and  to  stand  well 
and  for  any  length  of  time.  The  nearer  the  animal  is  made 
to  stand  in  its  natural  state  the  better  he  will  usually  show. 
Do  not  twist  your  cattle  around  in  the  show  ring  into  every 
conceivable  shape.  Many  people  think  that  to  show  an  animal 
its  head  should  be  high  in  the  air.  This  is  oftentimes  a 
serious  mistake,  for  usually  when  the  head  is  high  the  back 
is  low.  Some  animals  have  to  be  shown  with  their  heads  low 
to  show  a  strong  back.  The  best  showmen  are  those  who 
keep  their  eyes  on  the  animal  and  the  judge.  It  is  best  to 
stand  on  the  same  side  of  the  animal  as  the  judge,  for  then 
you  can  see  exactly  how  the  animal  appears  before  him. 
Some  men  try  to  deceive  the  judge  by  hiding  some  fault  in 
the  animal.  As  a  general  rule  when  you  hide  one  fault  you 
add  a  couple  more  in  some  other  part  of  the  animal. 


LECTURE  XXVII. 


REARING    CALVES    DURING    MILKING    PERIOD. 

At  present  there  are  two  general  methods  of  raising 
calves,  viz.:  by  hand  feeding  and  by  allowing  the  dam  to 
raise  them.  The  former  method  is  vastly  different  from  the 
latter  and  is  of  most  interest  to  calf  raisers  in  this  portion 
of  the  country  or  any  other  country  where  the  land  is  high 
priced. 

After  the  calf  is  dropped  and  has  been  licked  dry  by 
the  mother,  it  is  usually  strong  enough  to  rise  and  suck. 
However,  in  case  it  is  a  very  weak  calf,  assistance  from  an 
attendant  is  sometimes  needed  in  securing  its  first  meal.  A 
calf  that  is  to  be  raised  by  hand  should  not  be  allowed  to 
remain  over  three  or  four  days  with  its  dam;  in  fact,  some 
prefer  to  wean  it  at  once.  The  reason  for  this  is  that,  as  a 
rule,  the  calf  is  not  so  hard  to  teach  to  drink  as  when 
allowed  to  suck  the  cow  for  several  days  or  weeks.  There 
is  one  exception  in  which  this  method  should  not  be  em- 
ployed. That  is,  when  the  cow  has  a  hard  or  caked  udder. 
In  such  cases  it  has  been  found  by  experienced  breeders  and 
herdsmen  that  the  calf  by  sucking  and  rubbing  tends  to 
reduce  the  inflammation  and  soften  the  udder.  Where  the 
calf  is  allowed  to  remain  with  the  cow,  say  two  or  three 
weeks,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  starve  it  a  day.  By  so  doing  it 
will  become  hungry  enough  so  that  it  will  not  require  a  great 
deal  of  patience  to  make  it  drink. 

The  nature  of  the  milk  and  quantity  to  be  fed  is  an  all 
important  factor  in  raising  calves  successfully.  In  nature,  or 
from  the  cow,  the  calf  gets  its  milk  often  but  in  small  quan- 
tities, and  always  at  blood  temperature.  Thus  we  should 
strive  to  imitate  nature  as  nearly  as  possible.  During  the 
first  few  weeks  of  the  calf's  life,  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  milk 
per  day;  when  two  months  of  age,  fourteen  to  sixteen  pounds 
per  day;  and  when  three  or  four  months,  eighteen  to  twenty 


REARING  CALVES  DURING  MILKING  PERIOD.  133 

pounds  per  day  is  sufficient.  A  calf  is  such  a  greedy  sort  of 
an  animal  that  the  above  allowance  may  not  seem  to  suffice 
him;  however,  one  must  bear  in  mind  that  a  calf's  stomach 
is  a  very  delicate  organ,  and  when  subjected  to  all  the  milk 
the  average  calf  will  take,  disastrous  results  are  usually  the 
outcome.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  milk  sweet,  and 
it  should  also  be  warmed  before  feeding.  Since  creameries 
have  been  distributed  throughout  the  country  many  calves 
have  been  raised  on  skimmed  milk.  This  method  of  raising 
calves  is  the  most  economical  of  any  now  in  vogue.  It  greatly 
enhances  the  profit  of  a  cow,  because  the  butter  is  obtained 
which  would  otherwise  be  consumed  by  the  suckled  calf.  It 
has  been  found  possible  to  raise  a  calf  on  skim  milk  when  the 
milk  was  separated  at  the  creamery;  but  since  the  hand  sep- 
arators on  the  farms  have  come  into  use  the  problem  has 
become  very  much  simplified. 

Under  all  conditions  calves  should  be  fed  whole  milk  for 
two  or  three  weeks.  In  changing  from  whole  to  skim  milk 
the  change  should  be  made  very  gradually.  About  one  to  two 
pounds  per  day,  if  the  calf  is  getting  twelve  pounds  per  day, 
is  a  sufficient  change.  That  is,  if  the  calf  is  getting  twelve 
pounds  whole  milk,  the  first  day  of  the  change  feed  eleven 
pounds  whole  milk  and  one  of  skimmed  milk;  the  second,  ten 
pounds  whole  and  two  of  skimmed,  and  so  on  until  the  com- 
plete change  has  been  made.  Where  the  hand  separator  is 
available  the  change  can  be  brought  about  by  regulating  the 
skimming  of  the  milk.  That  is,  by  simply  removing  a  small 
portion  of  the  cream  at  first  and  gradually  skimming  closer 
until  you  practically  remove  all  the  cream.  If  the  calves  are 
consuming  about  ten  or  twelve  pounds  per  day,  the  complete 
change  from  whole  to  skim  milk  should  cover  a  period  of 
eight  to  twelve  days.  When  calves  are  about  two  or  three 
weeks  old  they  will  begin  to  nibble  at  hay  and  commence 
to  eat  grain;  and  when  they  are  about  a  month  or  five  weeks 
old  they  will  eat  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  a  pound 
of  grain  per  head  per  day. 

Whatever  supplement  to  the  milk  one  feeds,  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  it  is  perfectly  clean.  That  is,  hay,  grain 
and  roots  should  be  clean  and  wholesome.  Clover  hay  is  the 
best  kind  of  roughage:  and  a  ration  of  grain  composed  of 
corn  meal  or  oats  instead  of  oil  meal  is  much  cheaper  and 
has  been  found  to  form  a  better  combination,  all  things  con- 
sidered. Dried  blood  is  not  only  a  good  supplement  but  also 


134 


LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 


a  splendid  substitute  for  skim  milk  when  fed  in  the  right 
proportions.  Those  who  have  fed  it  in  connection  with  a 
small  quantity  of  whole  milk  have  found  it  superior  to  linseed 
or  other  meal  slops.  Dried  blood  should  be  diluted  with 
water  until  the  quantity  is  equal  to  that  of  the  milk  fed  in 
connection  with  it. 

When  a  number  of  calves  are  to  be  fed,  stanchions  are 
indispensable,  because  several  can  be  fed  at  the  same  time 
without  the  slightest  trouble.  Calves  will  also  learn  to  eat 
from  boxes  made  in  connection  with  the  stanchions  and  will 
be  prevented  from  sucKing  each  other,  which  is  so  common 
where  they  are  fed  at  random. 

If  calves  have  been  kept  in  a  stable  for  some  time,  con- 
siderable difficulty  is  usually  experienced  when  turning  them 
out  on  pasture.  In  order  to  avoid  the  sudden  change,  if  pos- 
sible feed  a  small  quantity  of  green  matter  for  a  few  days  pre- 
vious to  turning  them  out  into  the  field.  Thus  the  change  will 
be  brought  about  gradually  and  without  any  serious  effects. 
Fresh  water  should  always  be  kept  in  the  stalls  or  pens.  In 
winter,  when  the  weather  is  chilly,  the  cold  water  should  be 
warmed.  When  the  calves  are  allowed  to  suck  the  cows  the 
whole  milking  season,  very  little,  if  any,  care  is  required  in 
the  summer.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  cows  and  calves  have 
to  be  housed  the  greater  portion  of  the  time,  as  is  the  case 
in  winter,  it  is  generally  necessary  to  separate  the  cows 
from  the  calves.  While  the  calf  is  quite  young  and  its 
mother  is  giving  more  milk  than  it  can  take,  the  cow  should 
be  milked  out  twice  a  day.  Never  allow  the  milk  to  become 
stale  in  the  udder,  or  serious  trouble  to  both  cow  and  calf 
will  be  the  result. 

Under  the  best  of  care  calves  are  often  affected  with 
scours  and  infested  with  lice.  Lice  are  most  commonly  found 
in  warm  stables,  but  can  be  easily  killed  by  washing  the  ani- 
mals with  some  of  the  common  disinfectants,  such  as  Chloro- 
Naptholeum  Dip,  kerosene  emulsion,  etc. 

Scours  are  the  worst  enemy  the  calf  has  to  contend  with, 
and  under  the  best  of  care  some  are  affected  with  this  malady. 
Calves  are  subject  more  or  less  to  this  disease  during  any 
time  of  the  year.  However,  it  seems  to  be  most  frequent  in 
February  and  March  and  about  the  time  calves  are  turned 
on  pasture.  The  principal  causes  are  over-feeding,  feeding 
of  sour  milk,  feeding  of  cold  milk,  dirty  pails  and  feed  boxes, 
and  irregular  feeding.  Every  precaution  should  be  employed 


RKARJNG  CALVES  DURING  MILKING  PERIOD.  135 

in  order  to  keep  the  disease  out  of  the  barn.  Always  keep 
the  stalls  clean  and  well  bedded,  and  do  not  keep  too  many 
calves  in  a  small  stall. 

When  the  weather  is  mild  allow  the  calves  plenty  of  sun- 
shine and  exercise,  and  during  cold,  windy  weather  keep 
them  out  of  draughty  places  so  that  they  will  escape  colds. 

In  addition  to  the  above  two  systems,  sometimes  calves 
are  fed  on  whole  milk  during  the  entire  milk  period.  How- 
ever, such  a  system  is  rather  rare  and  is  somewhat  imprac- 
tical for  the  average  farmer,  especially  those  on  high  priced 
land. 


LECTURE  XXVIII. 


FEED,    CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    A    CALF    AFTER 
THE   MILK   PERIOD. 

As  a  rule  calves  are  dropped  in  the  spring  and  are 
weaned  in  the  fall.  This  system  seems  the  most  natural; 
however,  there  are  many  features  in  favor  of  having  them 
come  in  the  fall.  If  they  are  dropped  in  the  fall  they  can 
be  turned  out  on  grass  immediately  after  weaning  and  grow 
more  rapidly  than  on  a  dry  winter  ration.  When  they  are 
weaned  in  the  spring  and  turned  out  on  grass  they  need 
practically  no  attention.  However,  if  weaning  occurs  in  the 
fall  or  winter  much  attention  is  required. 

Calves  that  are  weaned  in  fall  or  winter  should  get  food 
of  a  nitrogenous  nature,  especially  those  that  are  designed 
for  dairy  purposes.  A  mixture  of  oats  and  bran  with  a  small 
quantity  of  oil  meal  will  make  a  good  grain  ration,  while 
silage,  corn  fodder,  timothy  hay  and  clover  or  alfalfa  will 
make  a  good  roughage  for  a  dairy  calf.  The  clover  or  alfalfa 
are  the  best  kind  of  roughage  because  they  are  rich  in  pro- 
tein, or  muscle  forming  material,  and  are  usually  more  pal- 
atable than  corn  fodder  or  timothy.  Whatever  feed  be  fed 
to  dairy  calves,  it  should  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will  tend 
rather  to  form  muscle  and  frame  than  fat.  The  chief  object 
in  feeding  a  dairy  calf  is  that  of  producing  plenty  of  bone 
and  muscle,  together  with  a  capacious  barrel  or  paunch.  In 
order  to  do  this  considerable  protein  and  roughage  must  be 
consumed  by  the  individual.  If  plenty  of  good  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay,  a  small  amount  of  roots  or  ensilage  and  sorghum 
or  corn  fodder  be  available,  very  little,  if  any,  grain  need  be 
fed  to  a  growing  dairy  calf. 

Calves  intended  for  beef  production  after  weaning  should 
get  a  ration  that  will  not  only  keep  them  in  growing  condi- 
tion, but  also  have  a  tendency  to  put  on  flesh  and  fat.  A 
mixture  of  bran,  oats  and  corn  meal  with  a  small  quantity 
of  oil  meal,  will  make  a  good  grain  ration.  One-half  pound 
of  grain  per  cwt.  of  calf  per  day,  gradually  raised  to  one 


MANAGEMENT  OF  CALF  AFTER  MILK  PERIOD.  137 

pound,  should  make  a  good,  liberal  feed.  A  variety  of  fodders 
.and  roots  or  ensilage  should  be  fed  in  connection  with  the 
above  mentioned  grain  ration  in  order  to  obtain  the  best 
results.  For  roughage,  clover  or  alfalfa  is  the  best;  how- 
ever, timothy  and  millet  hay,  or  corn  and  sorghum  fodder 
give  good  results.  As  the  greatest  gains  can  be  made  on  a 
given  amount  of  feed  with  a  young  animal,  liberal  feeding 
•during  the  first  winter  is  advisable.  It  is  certainly  poor 
policy  to  allow  the  calf  to  lose  its  calf  fat,  because  such  can- 
not be  produced  as  economically  at  any  other  stage  of  life. 
Thus  while  abundance  of  pasture  is  available  during  the 
summer  on  nearly  every  farm,  and  while  it  furnishes  the 
cheapest  and  best  feed,  yet  one  should  always  strive  to  keep 
the  young  animals  in  a  sappy  growing  condition  on  winter 
feed. 

In  the  corn  belt  good  warm  sheds  furnish  sufficient  shel- 
ter for  young  stock.  Sheds  constructed  so  that  they  open 
to  the  south  will  give  ample  protection,  providing  good  yards 
surround  them.  Calves  in  such  quarters  will  become  more 
liardy  than  those  that  are  kept  in  warm,  poorly  ventilated 
liarns.  Whatever  kind  of  sheds  or  quarters  calves  be  kept 
in,  they  should  be  warm  enough  so  that  no  extra  feed  be 
needed  to  keep  the  animals  warm.  Although  exercise  is  not 
the  most  conducive  to  gains,  yet  every  young  animal  should 
have  access  to  yards  and  sunshine  if  the  best  results  are 
expected.  Racks,  feed  bunks  and  water  tanks  should  be 
located  in  as  well  a  protected  place  as  can  be  obtained  in 
the  yard.  The  water  in  the  tanks  should  be  kept  from 
freezing  as  much  as  possible  by  placing  covers  on  the  tanks 
at  night;  and  in  the  severest  weather,  if  ice  forms  in  tanks, 
tank-heaters  should  be  employed.  Always  keep  sheds  well 
bedded  and  as  dry  as  possible. 

In  case  the  animals  become  infested  with  lice  they 
should  be  sprayed  with  a  kerosene  emulsion  or  some  of  the 
commercial  disinfectants  which  can  be  readily  obtained. 
Much  depends  on  the  care  of  the  calf  the  first  winter.  In 
fact  every  breeder  and  feeder  should  bear  in  mind  that  the 
younger  the  animal,  the  cheaper  the  gain  can  be  made.  Thus 
instead  of  just  keeping  the  calf  in  growing  condition  in  win- 
ter, it  should  rather  be  pushed  ahead  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
The  succeeding  summer  the  calf  should  be  put  on  good  pas- 
ture. If  the  pasture  is  short,  a  supplement  of  green  feed 
such  as  sorghum,  peas,  soy  beans,  etc..  can  be  fed  very 
profitably.  Always  keep  animals  growing  and  gaining. 


LECTURE  XXIX. 


FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  BREEDING  HERD 
OF  BEEF  CATTLE. 

On  the  average  breeding  farm  in  the  corn  belt,  corn,  hay 
and  grass  are  the  most  common  feeds  available.  In  summer 
good  pasture  furnishes  plenty  of  feed  for  breeding  animals 
However,  as  a  rule  the  majority  of  breeders  feed  calves, 
young  bulls,  and  cows  that  are  milking,  a  small  quantity  of 
grain. 

In  winter  when  the  herd  is  housed  it  is  necessary  to 
feed  considerable  grain  in  order  to  keep  the  animals  in  a 
good  sappy  condition.  Corn  being  the  most  plentiful  and 
cheapest  cereal  in  the  corn  belt,  it  invariably  furnishes  a 
large  proportion  of  the  grain  ration.  Although  corn  is  cheap 
feed,  it  should  not  be  fed  alone,  because  it  does  not  furnish 
a  well  enough  balanced  ration  for  growing  or  breeding  ani- 
mals. Corn  fed  in  connection  with  the  nitrogenous  feeds, 
such  as  oats  and  bran,  renders  the  most  satisfactory  results. 
A  mixture  of  one-third  each  of  corn  and  cob  meal,  ground 
oats,  bran  and  a  little  oil  meal,  makes  a  very  desirable  and 
palatable  grain  for  all  kinds  of  breeding  stock.  A  grain 
ration  for  calves  might  be  advantageously  modified  by  add- 
ing corn  meal  instead  of  corn  and  cob;  in  fact,  eliminating 
the  corn  entirely  and  simply  feeding  them  a  mixture  of  oats, 
bran  and  oil  meal,  is  often  advisable. 

Clover  and  alfalfa  are  the  best  variety  of  roughage;  how- 
ever, timothy  and  millet  will  do.  Corn  and  sorghum  fodder, 
if  well  cured,  can  be  fed  outside  and  thus  economize  the 
higher  priced  fodder.  When  ensilage  and  roots  are  available 
less  grain  is  needed  and  the  herd  can  be  kept  in  a  very  thrifty 
condition  at  much  less  expense.  In  case  the  breeder  grows 
very  little,  if  any,  of  the  grain  he  feeds,  it  is  sometimes 
economical  to  feed  a  small  quantity  of  gluten  meal.  Avoid 
feeding  foods  of  a  carbonaceous  nature,  especially  to  the 
young  animals  of  the  herd.  Calves  should  have  grain  rich 
in  protein  and  bone-producing  elements,  such  as  oats,  bran, 


MANAGEMENT  BREEDING  BEEF  CATTLE.       139 

etc.,  and  their  roughage  should  consist  of  clover  or  alfalfa, 
if  possible. 

Cows  may  be  tied  in  double  stalls,  and  their  calves 
kept  in  box  stalls  near  by  them.  By  feeding  the  cows  twice 
each  day  and  allowing  the  calves  to  suck  at  the  same  time, 
the  cows  can  be  turned  out  in  the  middle  of  the  day  to  water 
and  rough  fodder. 

Young  bulls  may  be  kept  two  in  a  stall,  but  not  very 
satisfactorily.  One  is  usually  enough  in  a  box  stall,  espe- 
cially if  he  is  of  any  size.  Bulls  require  plenty  of  exercise 
and  sunshine  in  winter  and  should  be  pushed  ahead  as  rapidly 
as  possible  after  weaning. 

Young  heifers  will  thrive  exceedingly  well  and  require 
very  little  attention  if  allowed  to  run  in  a  comfortable  shed 
which  opens  to  the  south.  Of  course  they  will  need  a  liberal 
grain  ration,  but  as  a  rule  will  develop  into  stronger,  hardier 
cows.  Every  individual  in  the  herd,  except  the  very  smallest 
calves,  should  get  outside  for  water,  rough  fodder  and  exer- 
cise every  day  during  winter,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  of 
the  severest  winter  days. 

Scours  being  a  very  common  malady  among  the  calves 
of  every  herd,  precaution  should  be  exercised  in  order  to 
keep  the  disease  out  of  the  barn. 

Regular  feeding  is  an  all  important  thing;  and  every 
feeder  should  have  a  definite  plan  or  routine  of  work.  Sev- 
eral small  yards  should  be  available  in  winter,  and  small 
pasture  lots  in  summer,  for  calves.  In  summer  the  calves 
and  young  bulls  are  better  inside  during  the  day  in  a  dark- 
ened barn,  so  that  the  flies  will  not  torment  them.  Always 
keep  plenty  of  water  and  salt  in  the  fields  in  summer  and 
the  yards  in  winter. 

The  feet  and  horns  should  also  receive  attention,  and  at 
the  right  time.  What  little  attention  the  calves'  feet  need 
can  be  done  with  a  good  blacksmith's  knife  or  a  pocket  knife. 
The  horns  can  be  improved  considerable  in  many  cases 
while  they  are  soft  and  small.  For  instance,  if  a  horn  tends 
to  turn  up  or  back  too  far,  it  can  be  directed  forward  or 
backward  by  trimming  it  with  a  knife  on  back  or  top.  When 
cows',  heifers'  and  bulls'  feet  cannot  be  trimmed  without 
more  or  less  trouble,  the  animal  should  be  put  in  a  stocks, 
which  can  be  quite  easily  constructed  by  any  farmer.  Every 
breeder  should  have  one  of  these  stocks.  Pregnant  cows, 


140       MANAGEMENT  BREEDING  BEEP  CATTLE. 

especially  those  heavy  with  calf,  should  not  be  put  in  stocks. 
If  a  cow  aborts,  she  should  be  immediately  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  herd,  especially  in  case  of  contagious  abortion. 
Disinfectants  should  be  used  freely  and  all  discharges  from 
the  cow's  womb  destroyed. 

In  managing  a  herd  one  should  consider  his  location  and 
demands  of  his  customers.  That  is,  one  will  find  that  some 
buyers  will  want  high  class  animals,  while  others  will  want 
only  medium  or  cheap  ones. 

It  is  advisable  to  have  a  large  per  cent,  of  the  calves 
dropped  in  the  fall,  because  generally  more  attention  can  be 
given  them  and  the  bull  calves  will  be  of  good  size  and  age 
for  disposing  of  the  second  fall  or  winter.  All  cows  that 
prove  to  be  non-breeders  after  a  fair  trial  should  be  sent  to 
market.  While  speculation  is  not  advisable,  yet  one  should 
not  use  his  own  breeding  too  freely.  That  is,  one  should 
avoid  in-breeding  if  there  is  any  tendency  to  reduce  consti- 
tution or  the  size  of  the  individual.  Introduce  new  blood 
whenever  you  think  it  is  going  to  benefit  the  herd,  and  always 
keep  a  good  bull  at  the  head  of  the  herd. 

It  should  always  be  the  aim  of  every  breeder  to  keep  his 
herd  in  a  condition  worthy  of  inspection,  and  the  animals  for 
sale  in  the  best  possible  bloom;  rather  approaching  the  show 
yard  condition  than  the  primitive  or  wild  condition.  If  the 
calves  from  twelve  to  eighteen  months  of  age  have  not  been 
sold  at  private  sale  they  should  be  sold  at  auction. 


LECTURE  XXX. 


FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  BEEF  BULL. 

Considerable  food  of  a  carbonaceous  nature  may  be  fed 
to  a  bull,  providing  he  receives  sufficient  exercise  and  nitro- 
genous food.  However,  if  one  is  to  expect  the  best  results 
from  a  bull,  succulent  and  nitrogenous  food  must  be  pro- 
vided. 

A  grain  ration  composed  of  oats,  bran  and  oil  meal  is 
the  most  desirable;  however,  gluten  meal  and  corn  may  also- 
be  fed  very  economically  and  without  any  bad  effects.  A 
variety  of  fodders,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa  and  sorghum  fod- 
der, will  serve  as  roughage.  Where  roots  and  ensilage  are 
available,  less  grain  may  be  fed  and  the  animals  kept  in  a 
much  thriftier  condition.  The  amount  to  feed  a  bull  is  some- 
what hard  to  get  at,  because  there  are  so  many  variations. 
However,  if  a  bull  has  much  work  to  do,  about  10  pounds  of 
grain  daily  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  is  a  fair  allowance. 

In  summer  a  good  arrangement  is  to  allow  the  bull  free 
run  in  a  good  pasture  which  has  good  shade  and  water.  In 
addition  to  this,  if  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  keep  the  bull  in 
high  flesh,  a  small  quantity  of  the  above  mentioned  grain 
ration  should  be  added. 

In  winter,  as  a  grass  substitute,  roots  or  ensilage  should 
be  fed  if  possible,  as  they  tend  to  keep  the  system  cool  and 
the  digestive  organs  in  a  good  healthy  condition. 

In  summer  when  the  flies  are  bad  during  the  day,  a  bull 
should  be  kept  in  the  barn  in  a  darkened,  yet  well  ventilated 
and  bedded  box-stall.  During  the  night  he  should  be  turned 
out  in  pasture  in  order  that  he  may  graze  and  exercise  him- 
self. 

In  winter  much  care  should  be  exercised  in  feeding  a 
bull.  That  is.  he  should  have  his  feed  regular.  Give  him  a 
chance  at  water  at  least  twice  a  day.  so  that  he  will  not  hav& 
a  tendency  to  drink  too  much  at  any  one  time.  Do  not  feed 
large  quantities  of  hay  to  an  old  bull  and  then  allow  him  to 
drink  large  quantities  of  water,  or  you  will  derange  his 


142  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

digestive  organs  so  that  he  will  become  despondent  and  slug- 
gish in  many  cases.  Always  allow  a  bull  plenty  of  exercise, 
because  upon  this  factor  depends,  in  a  large  measure,  his 
usefulness  and  activity.  His  feed  should  rather  be  of  a  con- 
centrated nature  than  bulky,  because  some  bulls  have  a 
tendency  to  gorge  themselves  and  become  paunchy  and  slow, 
poor  servers. 

The  feet  of  a  bull  demand  more  or  less  attention,  espe- 
cially if  he  is  getting  a  liberal  supply  of  grain.  Feet  should 
be  trimmed  so  that  the  animal  has  always  the  proper  use  of 
himself  either  in  walking  or  serving.  Some  bulls  are  as 
easily  handled  as  a  horse,  and  their  feet  can  be  trimmed 
without  the  slightest  difficulty;  however,  this  is  rather  the 
exception  than  the  rule.  The  most  expedient  way  is  to  put 
the  animal  in  a  stocks  and  raise  it  off  its  feet.  Then  by 
strapping  the  foot  to  be  trimmed  solid  to  a  beam,  so  that 
the  sole  will  be  facing  upward,  the  operation  can  be  executed 
with  a  pincers  and  a  chisel  in  a  few  minutes.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  cutting  too  deep  or  into  the  sensitive  part 
of  the  foot,  as  this  causes  bleeding  and  lameness  in  many 
cases.  Bulls'  feet  are  often  attacked  with  what  is  commonly 
known  as  foot  rot,  thrush,  foul  in  foot,  etc.  Such  diseases  are 
more  generally  found  among  bulls  that  have  been  fitted  for 
show  than  those  that  are  simply  kept  in  breeding  condition. 
However,  there  are  many  bulls  rendered  unfit  for  service  due 
to  faulty  feet  which  is  often  brought  about  through  lack 
of  care  at  the  right  time.  If  a  bull  becomes  lame,  due  to 
cracks  and  foreign  material  between  his  toes,  his  foot  should 
be  cleaned  out  thoroughly  and  treated  with  creolin  or  any  of 
the  coal  tar  dips.  Such  treatment  is  simple,  yet  proves  very 
efficient,  providing  it  is  applied  at  the  very  outset  of  a  dis- 
ease. 

In  handling  or  working  around  a  bull  always  make  it  a 
point  to  have  him  tied  up.  Never  depend  on  him,  however 
quiet  and  gentle  he  may  seem  to  be.  If  a  bull  is  inclined  to 
be  vicious,  as  is  often  the  case,  do  not  abuse  or  fight  with 
him,  because  this  invariably  makes  the  animal  worse.  Keep 
strangers  away  from  a  vicious  bull  as  much  as  possible,  so 
that  he  will  be  kept  quiet  at  all  times.  If  a  bull  is  a  slow 
server  "*o  not  attempt  to  force  him  with  a  whip,  etc.,  but 
rather  seek  to  remedy  his  deficiency  by  changing  his  feed 
or  dieting  him.  A  bull  is  sometimes  very  clumsy  in  serving, 
and  when  such  is  the  case  one  should  not  allow  him  to  serve 


CARE  OF  THE  BEEF  BULL.  143 

large  cows  on  the  run.  Never  allow  a  bull  to  run  in  pasture 
constantly  with  the  cows,  as  this,  in  short,  is  simply  cruelty. 
In  case  abortion  crops  out  in  the  herd,  the  bull  should  be 
thoroughly  disinfected  after  each  service.  If  a  mature  bull 
is  carefully  handled  he  should  be  able  to  leave  50  calves  or 
more  a  year,  and  have  them  all  come  within  a  period  of  a 
few  months.  A  bull  may  serve  as  many  as  three  cows  in 
one  day,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  subject  any  animal  to  such 
heavy  work.  Even  one  service  per  day  is  enough,  and  many 
bulls  will  become  sluggish  if  such  is  long  continued. 


LECTURE  XXXI. 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  BABY  BEEF. 

The  production  of  baby  beef  is  a  feeding  industry  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin.  Several  years  ago  the  custom  was 
to  keep  steers  until  they  were  four  or  five  years  of  age  before 
marketing  them.  There  is  little  demand  at  present,  however, 
for  old,  heavy  cattle,  and  as  a  rule  we  find  that  feeders  now 
market  their  cattle  at  from  one  to  three  years  of  age. 

The  production  of  baby  beef  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes:  first,  the  high  grade  calf,  forced  from  birth  and 
finished  for  the  market  at  an  age  of  eleven  to  sixteen  months ; 
and  second,  the  same  kind  of  calves,  but  kept  growing  and 
gaining  the  first  year  and  finished  at  twenty  or  twenty-two 
months  of  age.  The  former  method  is  not  so  common  as 
the  latter,  and  is  not  so  successfully  managed  by  the  average 
feeder. 

In  entering  upon  such  a  system  one  should  have  well- 
bred  calves.  If  the  animals  are  to  be  marketed  at  eleven  or 
twelve  months  of  age,  they  should  be  dropped  in  the  fall,  dur- 
ing October  and  November,  and  be  allowed  to  suck  the  cows, 
if  possible,  for  six  or  seven  months.  By  having  the  calves 
come  at  this  time  they  can  be  weaned  in  the  spring  and 
turned  on  good  pasture.  In  addition  to  the  grass  they  may 
be  fed  a  grain  ration  composed  of  corn,  oats,  bran  and  oil 
meal.  If  they  have  access  to  clover  pasture  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  ration  may  be  corn;  in  fact,  the  oats,  bran  and 
oil  meal  may  be  omitted  entirely  the  first  month  or  two  of 
the  feeding  period.  They  can  be  kept  gaining  nicely  on  a 
grain  ration  of  shelled  corn,  or  corn  and  cob  meal,  fed  in 
conjunction  with  clover  pasture.  Later,  or  during  the  last 
two  or  three  months,  oats,  bran  and  oil  meal  should  be  added 
to  the  grain  ration.  About  half  a  pound  per  head  daily  of 
oil  meal  is  sufficient  at  the  beginning,  'and  gradually  increase 
this  quantity  until  each  is  receiving  two  or  three  pounds. 
Many  other  feeds,  such  as  gluten  meal  and  dried  blood,  may 
be  fed  economically  when  the  animals  are  intended  for  the 


PRODUCTION  OB1  BABY  BEEF.  145 

market  at  one  year  of  age.  Their  rations  should  be  of  as 
concentrated  a  nature  as  they  can  handle  profitably. 

The  other  method  is  that  of  keeping  the  calves  in  a 
growing  and  gaining  condition  by  utilizing  the  cheaper  and 
rougher  feeds  of  the  farm  and  finishing  them  on  concentrated 
feeds,  fed  in  connection  with  grass  or  other  nutritious  rough- 
age, at  an  age  of  twenty  or  twenty-two  months.  Silage  can 
be  utilized  very  profitably  in  this  system.  Range  calves  can 
be  fed  successfully  in  this  manner.  That  is,  one  can  buy  the 
calves  on  the  range  at  weaning  time  and  have  them  shipped 
immediately  to  his  feeding  farm.  Such  calves  by  getting  a 
liberal  ration  will  retain  their  calf  fat  and  keep  in  a  sappy, 
thrifty  condition  during  the  first  winter.  The  succeeding 
summer  they  can  be  turned  out  on  good  pasture  and  finished 
during  the  fall  or  for  the  Christmas  market.  While  one 
might  formulate  a  balanced  ration,  however,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  no  single  ration,  fed  for  an  indefinite 
length  of  time,  will  give  the  best  results.  The  most  expe- 
rienced feeders  have  found  that  animals  relish  an  occasional 
change.  This  is  especially  true  of  young  animals;  however, 
such  changes  should  be  made  very  carefully,  because  violent 
changes  are  apt  to  derange  the  digestive  organs. 

Heifers  may  be  used  as  well  as  steers  in  production  of 
baby  beef,  providing  they  are  put  on  market  at  an  early 
date.  While  the  production  of  this  kind  of  beef  is  not 
adapted  to  feeders  who  have  abundance  of  cheap  pasture  in 
summer  and  plenty  of  roughage,  such  as  hay  and  fodder,  in 
winter,  however,  such  a  system  of  feeding  can  be  made 
very  profitable  on  high  priced  land  if  a  high  class  of  animals 
is  used  and  concentrated  foods  are  available. 


LECTURE  XXXII. 


POINTS  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  THE  BUYING  AND 
SELECTING  OF  STEERS  FOR  THE  FEED  LOT. 

Steers  are  put  into  the  feed  lot,  fed  and  cared  for  with 
the  hope  of  obtaining  for  them  at  selling  time  a  price  that 
will  enable  the  feeder  to  realize  a  fair  profit.  After  paying 
for  his  steers,  their  feed,  and  any  other  direct  expense  con- 
nected with  them,  he  should  still  have  left  a  margin  that 
would  pay  him  at  least  10%,  and  better  20%,  on  his  invest- 
ment. It  often  happens  that  this  profit  is  not  forthcoming 
when  everything  is  counted  in  on  both  sides  of  the  account, 
and  often,  too  often  in  fact,  instead  of  a  profit  to  the  feeder 
there  is  a  loss.  This  is  the  discouraging  part  of  cattle  feed- 
ing. When  much  time  and  labor  have  been  spent  in  buying 
and  bringing  the  cattle  home,  in  gathering  and  storing  the 
feed,  in  caring  for  and  feeding  them,  there  is  not  much 
encouragement  when  the  feeder  finds  that  instead  of  a  gain, 
he  has  sustained  a  direct  loss  on  all  his  operations. 

The  question  naturally  arises:  Is  there  anything  which 
the  feeder  can  do  to  influence  the  amount  of  profit  which 
will  accrue  to  his  labor?  There  is  certainly  something  for 
him  to  do,  and  that  is  to  exercise  care  and  judgment  in  the 
buying  and  selecting  of  the  steers  he  puts  into  his  feed  lots. 
No  matter  what  skill  is  possessed  by  the  feeder,  unless  the 
animals  placed  under  his  care  have  been  bought  right,  and 
unless  they  have  been  carefully  and  wisely  selected,  his 
•efforts  will  be  fruitless  so  far  as  the  matter  of  profit  is  con- 
cerned. Let  us  see  first  from  what  source  or  sources  the 
profits  in  steer  feeding  may  come,  and  then  we  shall  con- 
sider the  part  which  the  buyer  is  responsible  for. 

Profit  in  steer  feeding  may  come:  first,  from  the  con- 
version of  cheap  raw  materials,  such  as  roughage  in  the 
form  of  hay,  corn  stalks,  and  straw;  grains,  such  as  corn, 
oats,  peas,  bran;  or  concentrates,  such  as  oil  meal,  gluten 
feed  and  blood  meal,  into  high  priced  cuts  of  meat.  In 
the  second  place  by  the  addition  of  extra  fat  and  flesh  we 


SELECTION  OF  FEEDER  STEERS.  147 

hope  to  increase  the  value  of  the  whole  carcass;  i.  e.,  we 
aim  to  convert  the  1,000-lbs.  steer  into  a  1,350- It)  s.  prime 
steer,  and  in  doing  this,  make  the  whole  carcass  worth  at 
least  1%  cents  more  per  pound  than  when  purchased  for  the 
feed  lot.  There  are  several  other  items  which  may  enter  in 
as  profit  to  the  steer  feeder.  A  large  amount  of  manure  is 
secured  and  thus  increased  fertility.  A  home  market  is 
made  for  roughage  and  grains;  and  the  manufactured  pro- 
duct, the  beef  animal,  can  be  more  easily  and  economically 
transported  to  market.  Then,  too,  there  is  employment  for 
labor  which  would  perhaps  otherwise  have  to  be  left  unem- 
ployed. The  first  two,  however,  are  the  important  factors 
in  determining  profit,  and  these  are  on  such  a  narrow  mar- 
gin that  they  must  be  carefully  looked  after. 

The  buyer  going  out  to  purchase  steers  to  put  into  the 
feed  lot  must  have  before  him  an  ideal  which  he  seeks  to 
place  on  the  market,  and  this  ideal  should  be  the  prime  or 
choice  bullock.  He  has  in  his  mind's  eye  a  low  down, 
blocky.  deep,  thick  set  animal  with  straight  top  and  under- 
line, a  wide  spring  of  rib  giving  a  wide  back,  a  wide,  deep 
loin,  with  good  width  between  the  hooks,  a  long,  level  rump, 
and  deep,  thick  hindquarters,  with  low  down  twist  and  inside 
muscled  to  hock.  This  finished  steer  should  possess  a  gen- 
eral refinement  in  his  whole  make-up.  He  should  be  smooth 
and  fine  about  the  head,  which  should  be  short  and  broad. 
The  neck  should  be  short,  thick  and  evenly  blended  with  the 
shoulders.  The  shoulders  should  be  full  and  compact  on 
top  and  the  hooks  and  pins  should  be  snugly  hidden  away. 
His  legs  should  be  short  and  fine,  with  no  coarseness  at  the 
joints.  The  flesh  should  be  on  evenly  on  all  parts.  With 
all  this  refinement  there  should  be  no  paunchiness.  This 
goes  under  the  head  of  general  quality,  but  in  addition  to 
this  the  prime  steer  must  possess  what  is  termed  ''handling 
quality,"  which  is  indicated  by  a  soft  furry  coat  of  hair,  a 
mellow,  pliable  skin,  and  firm,  mellow  flesh.  This  is  the 
prime  steer  which  the  feeder  would  seek  to  place  upon  the 
market  in  order  to  secure  the  highest  price  going,  and  in 
order  that  he  may  accomplish  his  desires  the  buyer  must  seek 
to  obtain  for  him  the  raw  material  in  the  shape  of  feeders 
from  which  this  sort  can  be  made.  He  must  secure  such  as 
will  put  on  flesh  rapidly  and  economically.  In  order  that  the 


148  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

feeder  steer  may  meet  these  demands  there  are  certain  attri- 
butes which  he  must  possess.  First,  he  must  be  a  good  feeder. 
We  like  a  steer  to  be  able  to  eat  large  quantities  of  food 
and  at  the  same  time  make  good  use  of  that  food  in  the  way 
of  laying  on  flesh.  In  the  second  place,  he  must  possess  a 
strong  constitution  and  have  vigorous,  stylish,  general  appear- 
ance. In  the  third  place  he  must  possess  the  power  of  lay- 
ing on  flesh  in  the  valuable  parts — on  the  loin,  rump,  ribs, 
and  rounds.  In  the  fourth  place,  he  must  show  signs  of  early 
maturity. 

The  feeder  steer  has  been  described  already  in  a  pre- 
vious lecture  on  "Market  Classes  and  Grades,"  but  on 
account  of  its  importance  it  will  do  no  harm  to  repeat  it  in 
this  lecture.  A  low  down,  blocky  form,  is  always  desirable. 
He  should  be  deep  in  front  and  thick  through  the  heart.  A 
wide  spring  of  rib  giving  a  wide  back  on  which  to  carry 
high  priced  meat.  The  rib  should  be  round  and  deep,  giving 
the  steer  a  roomy  middle.  If  there  is  one  thing  to  avoid  in 
a  feeder  steer  it  is  that  of  a  small,  tucked-up  abdomen.  He 
must  have  sufficient  room  for  large  digestive  organs.  The 
loin  should  be  wide  and  deeply  laid  on  with  muscles.  The 
hooks  should  be  wide  apart,  but  should  lack  any  undue  prom- 
inence. A  long,  level  rump,  with  heavily  muscled,  wide, 
thick  hindquarters,  and  a  low  twist.  A  short,  broad  head, 
with  large,  mild,  bright  eye,  large  muzzle  and  mouth,  a 
heavily  muscled  under  jaw,  a  short,  thick,  smoothly  blended 
neck,  a  big  heart  girth  and  roomy  chest  and  low  down  hind 
flank,  all  go  with  a  good  vigorous  feeder.  With  this  form 
he  should  possess  general  refinement,  which  is  indicated  by 
a  clean  cut  head,  free  from  meatiness  and  puffiness.  A  fine 
flat  horn,  rather  than  one  that  is  round  and  stubby;  smoothly 
laid  shoulders  without  either  sharpness  about  the  bones  and 
joints  of  the  legs.  In  addition  to  this  he  should  be  a  supe- 
rior "handler;"  i.  e.,  his  skin  should  be  loose,  mellow  and 
pliable  to  the  touch,  and  he  should  be  thickly  clad  with  a 
soft,  silky,  furry  coat  of  hair.  He  should  have  an  abund- 
ance of  natural  flesh  or  muscle  along  the  back  and  loin, 
about  the  hindquarters,  over  the  shoulders  and  down  the 
ribs,  and  this  should  be  mellow  to  the  touch. 

A  feeder  of  this  sort  should  give  the  very  best  returns 
in  a  feed  lot,  so  far  as  early  maturity  and  economy  of  gain 


SELECTION  OF  FEEDER  STEERS.  14J> 

are  concerned,  and  when  taken  to  the  market,  if  finished, 
should  find  the  top. 

There  is  a  leggy  sort  of  steer  possessing  some  general 
roughness  which  will  make  a  fair  feeder.  He  will  do  away 
with  large  quantities  of  feed  and  will  always  be  up  at  the 
rack,  but  he  will  not  make  such  economical  gains,  nor  will 
he  finish  up  at  such  an  early  age,  and  when  he  goes  to  mar- 
ket he  cannot  command  the  highest  price  because  he  is  off 
on  general  quality.  A  steer  of  this  kind  is  a  loser  all  round. 

Never  select  a  long  headed,  long,  slim  necked,  peaked 
shouldered,  narrow  backed,  slab  sided,  thin  quartered,  cat 
hammed,  harsh  handling  steer  to  put  into  a  feed  lot.  Avoid 
steers  that  are  weak  in  constitution.  They  will  always  be  a 
source  of  annoyance  by  going  off  feed. 

Choice  feeders  such  as  have  been  described  above  can 
come  only  from  some  one  of  the  special  beef  breeds.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  the  dams  should  be  registered.  It  is 
well  enough  to  have  them  high  grades.  It  is  necessary,  how- 
ever, that  the  sire  should  be  a  pedigreed  animal  with  good 
ancestry,  and  at  the  same  time  he  himself  should  possess 
the  good  points  which  we  demand  in  the  feeder,  together 
with  that  degree  of  masculinity  which  will  insure  prepotency. 

Investigations  have  gone  to  show  that  beef  bred  feeders 
are  by  all  odds  the  most  economical  to  feed.  They  dress  a 
higher  percentage;  deposit  fat  between  the  muscular  tissue 
instead  of  laying  it  on  internally;  their  meat  is  "marbled" 
and  possesses  a  higher  market  value  because  of  its  juiciness 
and  delicious  flavors. 

It  is  better  to  buy  young  steers  that  have  been  kept 
growing  right  along  from  birth  and  are  in  a  good  thrifty 
condition.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  young  animals  make 
more  rapid  and  much  more  economical  gains  for  the  food 
fed  than  do  older  animals.  At  the  Chicago  Fat  Stock  Show 
in  1882  the  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  of  gain  was  ascer- 
tained to  be  as  follows: 

1  to  12  months.         12  to  24  months.       24  to  36  months. 
$4.03.  $7.98.  $12.54. 

Other  investigations  with  larger  numbers  of  animals  have 
shown  similar  results. 

Young  steers,  too,  adapt  themselves  to  new  and  changed 
conditions  more  readily  than  do  older  ones  and  lose  less  time 


150  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

in  acquiring  an  appetite  for  the  new  foods   which  are  sup- 
plied in  the  feed  lot. 

Where  one  has  a  large  amount  of  roughage  to  utilize,  it 
might  be  necessary  to  buy  an  older,  larger  animal  to  place 
in  the  feed  lot.  It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  the  day  of 
the  heavyweight  four  or  five  year  old  steer  is  past.  The 
demand  now  is  for  the  "handy  weight"  steer,  weighing  from 
1,350  to  1,450  Ibs.  The  quicker  he  can  be  produced  the 
better  it  is  for  both  the  producer  and  the  consumer.  We 
have  discussed  at  some  length  the  kind  of  steer  to  buy,  but 
we  should  know  as  well  when  and  how  to  buy  him.  As  to 
when  we  shall  buy  him  will  depend  largely  upon  conditions. 
We  usually  buy  when  we  are  ready  to  handle  them.  The 
market,  too,  will  have  something  to  do  with  time  of  buying. 
The  important  matter  is  not  so  much  when  we  "buy  as  what 
we  pay  for  our  feeders.  Much  of  the  money  lost  in  steer 
feeding  has  been  lost  because  of  injudicious  buying.  There 
was  a  time  when  we  were  sure  of  a  good  advance  on  the 
buying  price  when  the  selling  time  came,  but  we  can  no 
longer  count  on  that.  The  steer  feeder  in  order  to  insure 
himself  against  loss  should  count  on  at  least  1^  cents 
advance  on  the  buying  price,  and  if  feed  stuffs  are  high,  he 
should  count  on  not  less  than  2  cents  advance.  In  order  to 
be  sure  of  this  advance,  he  must  buy  around  3  to  3%.  Last 
year  (1902)  beef  was  high  and  many  feeders  made  good 
money  feeding  steers.  This  caused  large  numbers  to  rush 
into  steer  feeding  during  the  winter  of  1902-3.  Many 
paid  over  4  cents  for  their  stock.  Corn  became  high  in 
price.  Large  numbers  of  animals  placed  on  the  market 
made  beef  low  and  the  feeders  could  realize  no  gains.  Many 
experienced  serious  losses.  The  man  who  would  make  a 
success  of  buying  and  feeding  must  read  carefully  the  signs 
of  the  times.  He  should  study  well  the  local  and  market 
conditions,  and  if  these  are  not  favorable,  he  should  stay 
out  of  the  business  until  they  are. 

When  buying,  one  should  discriminate  very  seriously 
against  stunted  steers  that  have  been  starved  when  young 
things.  These  never  do  well  and  will  be  a  source  of  con- 
stant annoyance  in  the  feed  lot  as  well  as  a  profit  stealer 
when  the  final  balance  is  struck. 


SELECTION  OF  FEEDER  STEERS.  151 

Care  should  also  be  exercised  in  seeing  that  the  steers 
are  weighed  up  right.  If  you  buy  steers  that  are  weighed 
up  full  of  water  or  other  cheap  material,  it  will  take  a  deal 
of  good  feed  to  make  good  the  loss  you  have  allowed  your- 
self in  this  part  of  the  operation. 


LECTURE  XXXIII. 


FEEDING  STEERS  IN  THE  DRY  LOT. 

While  the  results  of  many  experiments  and  the  experi- 
ence of  practical  feeders  conclusively  prove  that  the  most 
profitable  gains  can  be  made  by  feeding  steers  on  grass, 
there  are  thousands  of  feeders  who  follow  dry  lot  feeding 
from  necessity  or  choice.  There  are  many  others  who  prac- 
tice feeding  on  grass,  but  who  also  follow  winter  feeding, 
and  this  is  necessarily  dry  lot  feeding.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
matter  of  prime  importance  to  every  feeder  to  become  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  those  methods  which  have  proved 
to  be  of  greatest  value  in  producing  maximum  gains  at  a 
minimum  cost. 

In  feeding  steers  in  the  dry  lot  certain  general  consid- 
erations demand  attention.  These  are:  size  of  lot,  drainage 
of  same,  bedding,  protection  from  winds,  sheds,  watering 
facilities,  and  arrangement  of  feed  bunks. 

The  size  of  the  lot,  while  variable,  should  be  sufficient 
in  size  to  permit  a  team  to  be  driven  in  and  out,  so  that  the 
feeding  may  be  done  direct  from  the  wagon.  Extremely 
large  lots  are  not  desirable,  as  the  cost  of  surfacing  them  is 
so  great  as  to  render  it  impracticable,  and  it  is  also  a  waste 
of  land,  and  it  cannot  be  justified  on  the  plea  that  the  dis- 
tribution of  manure  will  repay  the  use  of  the  land,  for  the 
trampling  of  the  soil  during  wet  times  in  the  spring  more 
than  offsets  the  manuring  the  land  receives.  A  lot  6x8  rods, 
properly  drained  and  surfaced,  furnishes  a  far  better  place 
for  a  load  of  fattening  cattle  than  a  larger  lot,  and  is  ample 
for  ordinary  cases. 

The  matter  of  having  lots  that  will  remain  free  from  mud. 
even  in  wet  weather,  is  of  prime  importance,  and  it  must  be 
confessed  a  very  difficult  matter  on  the  rich,  black  soils  of 
Illinois  and  Iowa.  In  Illinois  the  only  apparent  solution 
seems  to  be  the  paving  of  feed  yards ;  but  this  is  an  expensive 
matter,  and  we  are  not  yet  in  possession  of  such  data  as  will 
prove  the  profitableness  of  such  a  plan.  In  Iowa,  however, 
it  is  possible  to  prepare  and  maintain  excellent  feed  yards 
without  paving. 


DRV  LOT  FEEDING.  153 

Good  underdrainage  is  the  first  consideration,  and  where 
the  feed  lots  are  located  on  a  slope  the  tile  should  be  laid 
along  the  upper  side  of  the  lots,  so  as  to  prevent  the  moisture 
from  passing  down  from  the  higher  land.  The  lot  should 
then  be  graded  up  with  plow  and  scraper  until  it  is  high  in 
the  center,  with  a  fair  slope  to  the  sides;  then  haul  gravel 
on  the  lot  until  it  is  fairly  well  surfaced.  This  will  require 
the  expenditure  of  some  labor,  but  this  will  be  practically 
all,  as  there  are  but  few  parts  of  Iowa  where  gravel  cannot 
be  obtained  from  gravel  knolls  or  from  stream  beds.  The 
damage  done  to  feeding  cattle  through  having  to  remain  in  a 
muddy  feed  lot  may  not  be  fully  apparent  to  the  novice,  or 
to  those  whose  methods  are  so  slipshod  that  they  are  unable 
to  tell  definitely  as  to  whether  they  are  making  a  profit  or 
loss  during  the  muddy  weather;  but  while  we  have  as  yet 
no  definite  data  on  this  subject,  experienced  feeders  are  a 
unit  in  declaring  that  profitable  gains  cannot  be  made  in 
muddy  yards,  and  in  a  feeding  experiment  conducted  by  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  in  1903,  where  one  lot  of  cattle 
was  kept  in  a  fairly  well  drained  yard,  while  another  lot, 
equally  well  fed,  was  kept  in  an  extremely  muddy  lot,  those 
in  the  well  drained  lot  made  nearly  double  the  gains  that 
the  others  did;  and  as  it  is  a  recognized  fact  that  the  great- 
est gains  can  only  be  secured  when  cattle  are  most  com- 
fortable, no  farther  argument  in  favor  of  dry  feed  lots  should 
"be  necessary.  Bedding  should  be  supplied  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  permit  the  cattle  to  lie  down  in  comfort.  Economy 
will  usually  be  subserved  by  scattering  the  bedding  on  some 
one  side  of  the  lot,  and  only  over  a  limited  space. 

Expensive  stabling  is  not  to  be  thought  of  under  western 
conditions,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  stall  fed 
steer  enjoys  life  as  fully,  or  gains  as  rapidly,  as  the  brother 
of  the  open  feed  lot.  Protection  from  winds,  however,  should 
T>e  given  either  by  artificial  groves  on  the  north  and  west 
or  by  tight  board  fences.  Inasmuch  as  groves  cannot  be 
supplied  on  short  notice,  the  tight  board  fences  are  often 
resorted  to,  and  with  excellent  success.  These  should  be 
strong  and  substantial,  and  are  best  made  by  setting  strong 
posts  from  10  to  14  feet  apart,  nailing  three  2x4  horizontally 
to  them — at  top,  center  and  bottom — and  then  nailing  inch 
"boards,  six  feet  long,  perpendicularly  to  these.  The  top 
should  be  surmounted  by  regular  fence  capping,  which  can 


154  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

be  secured  at  a  nominal  cost,  and  which  will  strengthen  the- 
fence  greatly. 

The  sheds  should  be  extremely  simple.  The  only  re- 
quirement is  that  they  shall  protect  the  cattle  from  rain, 
sleet  or  wet  snows,  for  the  cold  rarely  becomes  intense 
enough  to  make  any  provision  for  warmth  necessary.  For 
this  reason,  sheds  that  have  a  wind  proof  north  wall,  similar 
east  and  west  ends,  and  a  good  roof,  but  that  are  entirely 
open  on  the  south,  are  usually  sufficient  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses, and  the  farmer's  pocketbook  will  be  far  heavier  than 
if  expensive  stables  were  built.  Summed  up  in  a  nutshell 
the  matter  of  fences  and  sheds  is  merely  a  matter  of  pro- 
tection from  wind  and  wet;  the  cold  is  usually  no  more  than 
sufficient  to  give  a  fattening  steer  a  good  appetite. 

Water  must  be  available  to  the  steers  at  all  times,  and 
dependence  should  never  be  placed  on  streams  or  ponds.  In 
the  winter  these  are  frozen,  and  by  the  time  the  owner  or 
hired  man  goes  twice  a  day  all  winter  to  chop  the  ice  and 
drive  the  cattle  to  the  freezing  water,  where  they  never 
drink  half  what  they  ought  to,  patience  will  be  a  minus 
quantity,  and  the  steers  will  be  short  many  pounds  of  gain. 
In  the  spring,  when  freezing  weather  is  past,  the  steers  will 
lose  a  pound  or  two  by  expending  energy  in  pulling  their 
legs  out  of  the  mud.  A  tank  in  the  feed  lot  so  arranged  that 
it  cannot  freeze,  and  supplied  from  a  cistern  situated  on 
some  height  of  ground,  is  the  ideal  arrangement,  for  this 
water  will  be  comparatively  warm.  Where  the  lay  of  the 
land  is  such  that  a  cistern  cannot  be  arranged  for,  an  ele- 
vated tank  must  take  its  place,  and  this  can  best  be  put 
up  and  arranged  by  some  of  the  regular  tank  companies  so 
as  to  be  free  from  frost.  The  piping  should  be  well  pro- 
tected, and  should  be  not  less  than  4%  feet  under  ground. 
For  a  tank  in  the  feed  lot,  we  have  as  yet  seen  no  better 
arrangement  than  that  now  in  use  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station.  These  tanks  are  round  bottomed,  wooden  tanks, 
from  ten  to  twelve  feet  long,  similar  to  the  wagon  tanks  in 
use  by  many  threshing  companies.  They  are  securely  placed 
on  a  rock  foundation.  The  piping  enters  at  the  center  of  the 
bottom  and  is  controlled  by  a  valve  and  a  float.  Around  the 
tank  a  cheap,  strong  frame  was  built,  and  this  was  packed 
with  sawdust.  Hinged  covers  protect  the  top.  The 
frame  is  made  of  two  inch  planks  and  the  cover  of 


DRY  LOT  FEEDING.  155 

the  same  material.  The  hinged  portion  of  the  cover — two 
feet  at  each  end  of  the  tank — is  of  single  thickness,  but  the 
balance  of  the  cover  is  double  planked.  Where  it  is  desired 
to  water  two  lots  of  cattle,  this  tank  can  be  set  beneath  the 
partition  fence,  and  works  admirably.  These  tanks  were  in 
use  at  the  Iowa  Station  during  the  past  year,  and  gave  per- 
fect satisfaction.  Plenty  of  gravel  and  rock  should  always 
l>e  placed  around  the  tanks  to  prevent  mud. 

The  feed  bunks  should  be  of  convenient  size  and  mova- 
ble, so  that  they  may  be  changed  from  place  to  place  to 
equalize  the  tramping  and  to  minimize  the  danger  of  making 
mud  holes.  The  ordinary  flat  bottomed  feed  bunk,  from  12 
to  14  feet  long,  constructed  of  two-inch  stuff,  and  strongly 
supported  on  4x4  legs  that  are  well  braced  with  cross  pieces, 
is  the  most  generally  used  of  any  and  is  probably  the  most 
sensible  arrangement  yet  devised.  For  roughage  "sawhorse" 
bunks  can  be  built,  or,  better  still,  a  roughage  pen  can  be 
built  at  one  side  of  the  feed  lot,  or  between  two  lots.  In 
the  latter  case,  it  is  simply  a  small  lot  built  between  two 
lots,  and  forming  part  of  the  partition  fence.  The  posts  are 
set  about  12  feet  apart,  and  the  fencing,  which  should  be 
two-inch  planks,  is  arranged  so  that  the  cattle  can  put  their 
heads  through  to  feed.  The  roughage,  be  it  straw,  hay  or 
fodder,  is  piled  up  on  the  inside.  Several  loads  may  be 
thrown  off  in  this  feeding  pen  at  once,  and  an  attendant  can 
move  it  up  within  reach  of  the  cattle  as  seems  necessary. 

Comfort,  without  pampering,  for  the  cattle,  and  conven- 
ience, without  needless  expense,  for  the  feeder,  are  the 
essential  features  in  the  general  management  of  feed  lots 
for  dry  lot  feeding. 


LECTURE  XXXIV. 


FEEDING  STEERS  IN  THE  DRY  LOT.— (Continued.) 

Having  taken  up  in  the  previous  lecture  the  general 
points  affecting  dry  lot  feeding,  we  have  next  to  deal  with 
actual  feeding  considerations.  Long  and  short  feeds,  feed- 
ing with  and  without  hogs,  getting  cattle  on  feed,  grains  to 
use,  roughage  best  adapted  to  fattening  steers,  light,  medium 
and  heavy  rations,  and  the  use  of  supplemental  feeds,  must 
all  be  considered. 

Long  feeds  are  to  be  preferred  where  the  cattle  being 
fed  are  comparatively  young,  the  markets  steady  or  rising 
slightly,  and  where  feed  is  low  or  medium  in  price.  Under 
such  conditions  the  greatest  possible  gains  are  desired,  and 
these  can  best  be  secured  on  the  120  or  150  day  feeds. 

Short  fed  cattle  make  most  money  to  the  feeder  when 
grain  is  high  in  price,  and  when  the  margin  between  the 
buying  and  selling  price  of  cattle  is  narrow.  Under  such 
conditions  mature  steers  in  thin  condition  can  be  crowded 
at  a  phenomenal  rate  for  50  or  90  days,  and  while  the  cost 
of  gain  will  usually  be  as  great  or  greater  than  in  the  case 
of  the  long  fed  cattle,  the  investment  is  turned  sooner,  with 
less  risk  at  a  time  when  markets  are  variable. 

In  feeding  grain  of  any  kind,  more  or  less  passes  undi- 
gested through  the  steers,  and  this  waste  is  increased  when 
the  cattle  are  on  heavy  feed. 

Where  good,  thrifty  shoats  are  allowed  to  run  with  the 
steers,  this  waste  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  for  the  hogs  will 
gather  all  waste  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  droppings.  It 
often  happens,  however,  that  cholera  or  swine  plague  de- 
stroys the  hogs,  or  renders  them  a  very  risky  business  prop- 
osition, and  in  such  cases  the  problem  is  to  make  the  steer 
utilize  the  feed  so  perfectly  that  little  or  no  waste  will  be 
left  in  the  droppings.  This  is  done  by  grinding  the  grain 
fed,  and  the  results  of  numerous  experiments  show  that  a 
saving  of  about  12%  is  effected  by  grinding.  Where  hogs  are 
procurable,  however,  it  is  usually  inadvisable  to  go  to  the 


DKY  LOT  FEEDING.  157 

expense  of  grinding  unless  it  be  in  the  finishing  period.  At 
this  time  the  steer's  digestive  apparatus  seems  to  be  more 
or  less  wearied,  and  the  change  from  whole  to  ground  grain 
will  usually  result  in  stimulating  gains. 

Getting  cattle  properly  started  on  feed  is  important,  and 
many  novices  make  the  error  of  undertaking  to  start  the 
steers  too  rapidly.  The  result  is  that  the  animals  go  off 
feed,  get  to  scouring,  and  are  seriously  set  back.  If  the  cattle 
are  natives,  no  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  starting  them 
on  corn.  Range  steers,  however,  must  acquire  a  taste  for 
grain,  and  it  will  often  require  two  weeks  feeding  to  get 
them  thoroughly  in  the  notion  of  eating  corn.  During  this 
time  they  should  receive  such  roughness  as  is  at  hand — corn 
fodder,  hay  or  straw — and  should  be  given  snapped  corn. 
This  is  the  best  feed  known  with  which  to  start  cattle.  As 
Professor  Henry  tersely  puts  it,  "There  is  a  freshness  and 
palatability  about  an  ear  of  corn  wrapt  in  nature's  covering 
which  every  steer  recognizes  and  shows  by  the  eagerness 
with  which  he  consumes  it."  The  feeding  hours  should  be 
regular,  and  the  attendants  quiet.  A  rough,  boisterous  man 
will  do  untold  damage  to  a  bunch  of  steers.  If  the  feed  is 
to  be  a  long  one,  the  animals  should  receive  but  4  or  5 
pounds  per  head  daily  at  first,  with  a  gradual  increase  to 
about  10  pounds  per  head  daily  by  the  end  of  the  first  month. 
During  the  second  month  the  feed  can  be  gradually  increased 
and  the  animals  brought  to  full  feed  by  the  middle  of  the 
third  month,  and  it  will  probably  be  advisable,  where  grind- 
ing is  cheap,  to  shift  them  to  ground  corn  by  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  month,  even  though  the  hogs  are  following. 
Where  a  short  feed  is  the  rule,  the  feed  should  be  increased 
more  rapidly;  starting  on  5  pounds  per  head  daily,  the  in- 
crease should  be  so  gauged  that  they  will  be  receiving  14 
or  15  pounds  per  head  daily  by  the  end  of  the  first  month. 
They  should  be  on  full  feed,  usually  about  25  pounds,  by  the 
middle  of  the  second  month,  and  for  the  most  rapid  forcing 
the  grain  should  be  ground  and  mixed  with  cut  hay  or  straw. 

Changes  in  feed  should  always  be  made  cautiously,  and 
can  best  be  accomplished  by  gradually  reducing  one  feed, 
while  increasing  the  other,  and  where  cattle  are  on  full  feed, 
at  least  a  week  or  ten  days  should  elapse  in  making  the 
change.  At  the  start  one  feed  per  day  is  enough,  but  as  the 
feed  is  increased  two  feeds  are  preferable. 


158  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

Corn  is  the  feed  par  excellence  for  fattening  steers,  and 
under  prevailing  conditions  in  the  great  central  states  it  is 
the  only  staple  feed  used.  In  regions  where  corn  is  scarce 
or  high  in  price,  wheat,  barley,  oats  and  roots  are  used; 
and  in  some  of  the  western  states,  sole  dependence  is  some- 
times placed  on  alfalfa,  and  with  very  good  success.  The 
question  of  feeding  corn  alone,  or  with  other  feeds,  will  be 
discussed  in  a  later  paragraph. 

The  roughage  fed  must  be  controlled  chiefly  by  supplies 
on  hand  and  prevailing  prices.  Good,  bright  clover .  hay  is 
the  ideal  roughage  to  feed  with  corn;  but  it  is  difficult  to 
secure,  and  high  prices  often  prevent  its  use.  Corn  fodder, 
preferably  cut  before  the  leaves  have  dried  up,  can  also  be 
used,  and  even  wheat  and  oat  straw,  used  as  roughage,  have 
a  feeding  value  that  is  surprising  to  many.  Whatever  the 
roughage  be,  the  steers  should  receive  all  they  want  of  it, 
but  it  should  not  be  piled  before  them  in  such  amounts  that 
they  cannot  clean  it  up.  Steers  will  not  eat  roughage  they 
have  breathed  over  for  any  length  of  time,  and  the  aim 
should  be  to  supply  their  needs  once  or  twice  a  day. 

The  question  of  light,  medium  and  heavy  rations  for  fat- 
tening cattle  has  aroused  much  discussion  since  feeds  have 
become  high  in  price.  The  experiments  conducted  along  this 
line  by  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  in  1903  are  the  only 
available  ones,  and  cannot  be  accepted  as  conclusive  until 
further  tests  are  made.  They  show,  however,  that  the  cost 
of  gain  was  least  on  the  light,  and  greatest  on  the  heavy 
ration  bunch;  the  medium  ration  bunch  occupying  a  middle 
position.  When  total  gains  and  selling  prices  are  consid- 
ered, however,  the  heavy  ration  proved  slightly  the  best,  as 
the  greater  gain  in  weight  and  the  consequent  higher  selling 
price  were  sufficient  to  place  this  lot  in  the  lead  on  returns; 
but  the  light  ration  bunch  ranked  next  when  the  same  factors 
were  considered.  Further  experiments  must  be  conducted 
along  this  line. 

The  use  of  supplemental  feed  stuffs  from  the  packing 
houses,  oil  mills  and  glucose  factories,  has  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  feeders  for  several  years  past.  The  experiments  con- 
ducted by  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  go  to  show  that  the 
cost  of  these  supplemental  stuffs  is  the  chief  point  to  be  con- 
sidered. 


DRY  LOT  FEEDING.  159 

When  corn  is  high  and  these  various  by-products  are 
moderate  in  cost,  they  can  profitably  be  used;  but  where 
the  reverse  is  true,  corn  alone  will  prove  most  profitable. 
This  question  is  too  extended  to  be  taken  up  in  full  here, 
and  the  student  should  write  to  the  Director  of  the  Iowa 
Experiment  Station  for  full  reports  on  this  matter,  which 
have  been  published  in  bulletin  form. 

In  conclusion,  the  chief  points  to  be  observed  in  feeding 
steers  in  the  dry  lot  are:  comfort  for  the  cattle,  convenient 
feeding  facilities  and  water  supply,  quietness  and  regularity 
in  feeding,  and  a  careful  study  of  the  comparative  cost  of 
the  feeds  which  it  is  desired  to  use. 


LECTURE  XXXV. 


FATTENING  STEERS  ON  GRASS. 

Throughout  the  corn  belt  the  major  portion  of  the  cattle 
feeding  has  been  done  during  the  winter  months.  There  are 
many  reasons  for  doing  so  in  preference  to  summer  feeding. 
With  the  crib  full  of  corn  a  man  naturally  seeks  some  way 
of  disposing  of  the  same.  The  farmer  also  has  more  time 
to  care  for  the  stock  during  the  fall  and  winter  months  than 
during  the  summer.  These  things  in  the  past  seem  to  have 
settled  the  policy  that  during  the  fall  and  winter  months  was 
the  most  convenient  time  to  make  beef. 

To  the  man  who  has  tried  both  methods  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  argue  the  matter.  He  knows  too  well  that  a  combina- 
tion of  blue  grass  pasture  and  corn  is  the  most  economical 
method  yet  known  to  the  American  agriculturist  for  the  pro- 
duction of  beef  of  the  very  highest  quality.  All  of  our  feed- 
ing experiments  verify  the  above  statement. 

Recent  experiments  conducted  by  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station,  also  those  by  other  experiment  stations,  show  very 
clearly  that  a  pound  of  gain  on  the  beef  animal  can  be  pro- 
duced in  summer  for  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing the  same  during  the  fall  and  winter  months  on  the 
same  quality  of  cattle.  In  these  tests  the  corn  consumed 
was  valued  at  50c  per  bushel,  and  the  pasture  charged  at 
the  rate  of  $1.15  per  month  per  acre. 

One  of  the  most  vital  periods  in  the  life  of  a  steer  that 
is  to  be  finished  on  grass,  is  the  changing  from  the  dry  feed 
lot  to  the  pasture.  Right  here  is  where  many  men  lose  a 
month's  feed,  and  in  some  instances  give  their  cattle  such  a 
serious  set-back  that  they  never  make  satisfactory  gains 
thereafter.  Too  much  care  and  judgment  cannot  be  exer- 
cised by  the  feeder  at  this  time.  He  must  accomplish  the 
change  without  any  loss  or  shrinkage  in  his  cattle.  In  fact 
he  should  aim  to  maintain  his  former  daily  gains,  and  such 
a  thing  is  possible. 

In  making  this  change  no  one  set  of  instructions  will 
apply  to  all  conditions.  The  previous  management  of  the 


FATTENING  STEERS  ON  GRASS.  161 

cattle  must  be  carefully  considered.  Cattle  which  have  been 
on  full  feed  must  be  handled  differently  from  those  which 
have  been  on  medium  or  light  rations.  The  length  of  time 
the  animals  are  to  be  fed — that  is,  whether  they  are  intended 
for  early  summer,  late  summer,  early  fall,  or  winter  market — 
must  be  considered.  Cattle  which  have  been  on  full  feed  for 
several  months  and  intended  to  be  marketed  not  later  than 
the  first  of  June,  should  not  be  changed  from  the  dry  lot  to 
pasture.  Such  a  change  cannot  usually  be  made  without  a 
loss  to  the  owner.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  while  they 
have  been  almost  finished  in  the  dry  lot,  yet  they  will  sell 
as  grass  fed  cattle.  Further,  they  will  not  ship  nearly  so 
well  as  those  from  the  dry  lot,  as  the  grass  during  the  early 
months  is  very  soft  and  washy,  thus  a  heavy  shrinkage  must 
be  expected  from  cattle  fed  on  the  same.  These  points 
should  be  carefully  considered  by  the  feeder. 

When  cattle  are  once  placed  upon  full  feed  there  should 
never  be  any  let-up,  but  they  should  be  fattened  to  a  finish 
as  soon  as  possible.  Thus  cattle  which  have  been  on  full 
feed  should  continue  to  receive  the  same  after  being  changed 
to  the  grass  lot.  In  feeding  cattle  on  grass,  the  best  results 
will  usually  be  obtained  from  those  which  have  not  received 
very  much  grain  during  the  winter  months.  In  this  respect 
animals  which  have  never  received  more  than  half  a  grain 
ration  usually  make  much  more  satisfactory  returns  than 
those  which  have  been  on  a  full  grain  ration.  This  Is  due  to 
the  fact  that  animals  will  usually  make  about  as  heavy  gains 
on  a  medium  grain  ration  and  grass  as  they  "will  on  a  heavy 
grain  ration.  They  will  always  make  much  more  economical 
gains  from  the  light  or  medium  rations.  The  main  and  only 
advantage  of  the  heavy  ration  is  that  it  will  usually  furnish 
an  earlier  finish.  Thus  the  feeder  must  use  his  judgment  as 
to  whether  he  will  feed  light  or  heavy  rations  and  be  guided 
by  the  length  of  the  feeding  period. 

Making  the  change  from  dry  roughage  to  grass  is  a  crit- 
ical point.  There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best 
ways,  each  of  which  can  be  practiced  with  fair  success.  The 
first  is  to  keep  the  cattle  in  the  feed  lots  until  the  grass  has 
made  a  good  growth,  then  turn  them  on  pasture  for  a  few 
hours  each  afternoon  when  the  grass  is  free  from  external 
moisture,  the  regular  allowance  of  grain  and  roughage  being 
supplied  them  in  the  feed  lots;  that  is,  they  are  fed  and 


162  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

watered  as  usual,  and  allowed  to  eat  hay  in  the  feed  lots  all 
forenoon.  When  returned  to  the  feed  lot  they  should  have 
all  the  coarse  fodder  they  will  consume  and  their  regular 
allowance  of  grain.  By  continuing  this  method  from  ten  days 
to  two  weeks,  gradually  increasing  the  time  in  the  pasture, 
gain  can  be  made  continuously  in  the  great  majority  of  cases. 

The  advantages  of  the  above  methods  are  mostly  in  favor 
of  the  pasture  lot.  It  allows  the  grass  to  make  a  good  growth 
early  in  the  season,  thus  enabling  it  to  withstand  heavier 
grazing  later  on,  and  also  periods  of  drought.  The  objections 
are  that  some  cattle  after  once  grazing  upon  fresh  grass  will 
not  take  kindly  to  the  roughage  supplied  in  the  dry  feed  lot. 

The  other  method  of  accomplishing  this  change,  in  many 
respects  the  best  one  to  adopt,  is  to  allow  the  cattle  a  run 
of  the  grass  lot  as  it  commences  to  grow  in  the  spring.  This 
is  especially  true  when  the  pasture  lots  are  convenient  to 
the  feed  yards  so  that  the  cattle  may  have  access  to  both 
without  involving  too  much  labor  on  the  part  of  the  feeder. 
Another  point  which  will  aid  very  much  in  making  this 
change  will  be  the  presence  of  the  old  grass  in  the  pasture 
lot.  The  wise  feeder  will  not  allow  his  pasture  lots  to  be 
grazed  too  closely  the  previous  fall.  An  abundance  of  dried 
grass  in  the  spring  of  the  year  will  aid  the  feeder  very  much 
in  making  a  gradual  change  from  the  feed  lot  to  the  pasture 
lot,  as  then  the  tender  blades,  which  are  very  watery,  will 
be  combined  with  some  of  the  matured  grass,  thus  affording 
a  more  substantial  diet.  Where  the  above  mentioned  condi- 
tions prevail,  the  cattle  should  be  allowed  the  run  of  the 
pasture  lot  before  the  grass  has  made  much  growth.  They 
should  receive  their  regular  allowance  of  grain  and  have 
fresh  roughage  supplied  in  their  feed  racks  as  long  as  they 
will  partake  of  the  same.  This  allows  of  a  most  gradual 
change.  As  the  grass  makes  more  growth  they  will  get  a 
little  more  of  it  each  day,  thus  requiring  that  much  less  of 
the  fodder  in  the  feed  lot.  As  previously  stated,  the  presence 
of  matured  grass  in  the  pasture  lot  will  aid  very  much  in 
bringing  about  this  change. 

Recent  tests  along  this  line  conducted  by  the  Iowa  Ex- 
periment Station  on  the  Cook  farms  at  Odebolt,  Iowa,  have 
demonstrated  that  such  a  change  is  feasible.  The  cattle  con- 
tinued to  eat  their  former  roughage  for  several  weeks  and 
made  better  than  two  and  a  half  pounds  gain  per  steer  per 


FATTENING  STEERS  ON  GRASS.  163 

day  during  the  intervening  period.  A  change  of  this  kind 
does  not  allow  the  grass  to  get  any  start  whatever,  especially 
early  in  the  season,  thus  more  acreage  is  required  to  furnish 
abundant  feed  during  periods  of  dry  weather. 

It  is  very  doubtful  as  to  whether  it  pays  to  feed  young 
animals  or  animals  which  have  not  previously  had  much 
grain — much,  if  any — while  the  supply  of  grass  is  abundant. 
This  is  especially  true  of  animals  which  are  not  intended  for 
the  early  fall  market.  Tests  made  by  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  along  this  line,  where  two  bunches  of  cattle  of  equal 
quality  were  allowed  the  run  of  equal  areas  of  good  blue 
grass  pasture,  one  receiving  grain  in  addition,  and  the  other 
lot  on  grass  alone,  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  practically 
as  heavy,  and  much  more  economical  gains,  can  be  secured 
from  grass  alone  as  from  a  ration  of  grain  in  addition  to 
grass  during  those  months  when  grass  is  plentiful.  During 
the  hot,  dry  months,  a  small  ration  of  corn  was  found  to  be 
very  helpful.  This  will  be  governed  to  a  certain  extent  by 
the  supply  of  grass.  If  the  grass  is  short  some  grain  can 
be  fed  to  advantage.  The  preparation  of  corn  for  cattle  on 
grass  is  an  important  point.  When  cattle  are  changed  from 
dry  feed  to  grass  their  mouths  soon  indicate  a  tenderness 
that  makes  the  dry,  hard  corn  difficult  of  mastication.  This 
calls  for  preparation  of  some  kind.  Many  advocate  the  grind- 
ing of  the  corn.  In  our  experience  shelled  corn  which  has 
been  soaked  for  about  twelve  hours  has  given  the  best  satis- 
faction. The  shelled  corn  which  passes  through  the  animal 
undigested  is  more  likely  to  be  utilized  by  the  hogs  which 
follow  the  cattle.  Where  there  are  no  hogs  to  follow  the 
cattle  and  corn  is  high  in  price  it  should  always  be  ground, 
as  this  will  save  about  twelve  per  cent.  Thus  the  price  of 
corn  will  determine  the  advisability  of  grinding  the  same. 

Cattle  on  grass  should  be  fed  grain  but  once  a  day,  and 
that  always  in  the  evening.  The  advantages  of  feeding  in 
the  evening  are  that  the  cattle  being  full  of  grass  then  will 
consume  the  soaked  shelled  corn  more  leisurely  than  when 
the  stomach  is  empty.  They  soon  lie  down  and  rumination 
commences  and  is  far  more  effective  on  the  corn  when  the 
stomach  is  full  of  grass.  Careful  observation  leads  us  to  be- 
lieve that  less  undigested  corn  is  found  in  the  droppings 
when  the  cattle  are  fed  on  full  stomachs  in  the  evening  than 
when  they  are  fed  on  empty  stomachs  in  the  morning. 


164  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

An  abundance  of  grass  is  one  of  the  surest  ways  of  secur- 
ing good  gains.  Too  many  cattle  feeders  overcrowd  their 
pastures,  and  by  so  doing  are  always  scarce  of  grass.  "Grass 
to  the  knees"  is  a  good  motto  for  the  cattle  feeder  to  frame 
in  his  own  mind  and  to  put  into  practice  on  his  farm.  Plenty 
of  pure,  fresh  water  should  always  be  available.  No  effort 
should  be  made,  however,  to  induce  feeding  cattle  to  consume 
large  quantities  of  water,  as  it  is  not  considered  to  be  con- 
ducive to  the  most  economical  gains.  Fattening  cattle  usually 
show  a  strong  desire  for  salt,  and  this  craving  should  be  sat- 
isfied by  a  reasonable  supply.  The  excessive  use  of  salt 
leads  to  a  heavy  consumption  of  water,  which  is  not  consist- 
ent with  heavy  gains.  Where  shelter  is  provided,  granular 
salt  may  be  used,  but  if  exposed  to  the  weather  rock  salt  only 
should  be  supplied. 

Protection  from  the  hot  sun  and  flies  should  be  provided. 
For  this  purpose  a  good  grove  will  be  a  valuable  adjunct. 
If  natural  shade  of  this  kind  is  not  available,  it  should  be 
provided  for  otherwise.  Some  of  the  most  successful  Iowa 
feeders  have  large  sheds  and  barns  for  this  purpose.  One 
very  successful  feeder  houses  his  cattle  during  the  day  in 
hot  weather  and  allows  them  the  run  of  the  grass  lot  at 
night.  During  periods  of  drought  forage  crops  can  be  utilized 
to  good  advantage.  Sweet  corn  is  one  of  the  best  things  for 
this  purpose.  Sorghum  and  field  corn  can  also  be  made  to 
serve  a  useful  purpose.  These  crops,  however,  are  largely 
water  during  the  early  stages,  hence  must  be  fed  in  large 
quantities  to  insure  good  returns. 

The  shipping  of  grass  fed  cattle  is  an  important  point,  as 
grass  cattle  do  not  usually  ship  well.  To  ship  such  cattle 
is  a  hard  task,  but  it  must  be  done,  Where  convenient  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  place  such  cattle  in  a  yard  and  feed  them  hay 
for  a  day  or  two,  reducing  the  corn  ration  somewhat.  The 
secret  of  shipping  all  classes  of  cattle  is  to  place  them  on  the 
cars  full  of  feed  but  with  as  little  moisture  as  possible.  Cattle 
well  bedded  always  ship  better  than  those  not  thus  provided. 


LECTURE  XXXVI. 


PREPARATION   OF  CATTLE   FOR   MARKET. 

In  preparing  cattle  for  shipping  every  precaution  and  the 
greatest  care  should  be  exercised  by  the  feeder  or  shipper 
so  that  the  animals  will  reach  the  market  in  prime  condition. 

If  the  steers  are  being  finished  on  grass  and  grain,  they 
should  be  taken  off  the  pasture  and  put  in  a  dry  lot  at  least 
twenty-four  hours,  or  better  still  forty-eight  hours,  before 
shipping,  and  fed  only  half  their  usual  allowance  of  grain, 
with  all  the  hay  they  will  eat.  In  some  cases  it  is  advisable 
to  feed  no  grain,  thus  getting  the  animals  to  eat  considerable 
bulky  food,  such  as  hay.  The  whole  secret,  if  there  is  such 
a  thing,  of  shipping  cattle  successfully,  is  to  get  them  full  of 
dry  food  just  previous  to  the  time  they  are  placed  on  the 
cars  and  market.  That  is,  the  less  moisture  the  food  con- 
tains in  proportion  to  dry  material,  the  better,  because  as  a 
rule  a  steer  that  is  largely  filled  with  water  has  a  tendency 
to  scour,  and  thus  show  up  gaunt  and  bad  on  the  market. 
Some  unscrupulous  shippers  have  a  custom  of  salting  their 
cattle,  so  that  they  drink  large  amounts  of  water  and  fill  up 
on  the  same.  This  is  something  that  is  usually  very  detri- 
mental to  the  sale  of  the  cattle.  It  is  useless  for  the  shipper 
to  think  he  can  fool  the  buyer  by  such  a  practice.  By  feed- 
ing a  large  quantity  of  salt  one  is  apt  to  bring  on  a  fevered 
condition  in  the  animal's  stomach  or  digestive  organs,  thus 
causing  it  to  drink  an  unnatural  amount  of  water,  which  in 
turn  causes  a  looseness  of  the  bowels  and  a  surprising  shrink- 
age. 

When  the  cattle  are  taken  off  pasture  they  should  be  put 
in  as  dry  a  yard  as  possible,  so  that  they  may  keep  tolerably 
clean.  Do  not  leave  the  ordering  of  the  car  until  the  last 
minute,  but  rather  order  it  so  that  it  can  be  properly  bedded 
and  a  good  supply  of  hay  put  in  its  racks.  Straw,  of  course, 
makes  the  best  kind  of  bedding  one  can  use;  however,  the 
most  essential  thing  is  that  of  supplying  plenty  of  whatever 


IQQ  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

is  available.  To  simply  half  bed  a  car,  in  many  cases,  is  like 
cutting  the  price  of  the  cattle,  because  they  become  dirty  and 
much  of  their  finish  and  quality  is  apparently  lost. 

There  is  nothing  better  than  good  sweet  hay  for  cattle 
before  loading  or  in  transit.  Some  shippers  advise  feeding 
a  small  quantity  of  grain,  but  as  a  rule  grain,  especially  corn, 
has  a  tendency  to  fever  the  animals  and  cause  them  to  drink 
too  much  water.  Thus,  all  things  considered,  the  less  grain 
that  is  fed  just  previous  to  and  during  shipment  the  better. 
When  the  cattle  are  ready  for  shipment,  they  should  be 
driven  over  the  scales  and  the  weights  recorded.  They  then 
should  be  driven  very  carefully  to  the  stock  yards  or  station 
where  they  are  to  be  shipped.  If  the  weather  is  warm,  they 
should  be  driven  in  the  morning  while  it  is  cool.  Quietness 
and  gentleness  should  be  in  evidence  in  putting  cattle  on 
and  off  the  cars.  All  hurry  or  violence  should  be  dispensed 
with,  as  such  usually  causes  heavy  losses  in  weight. 

As  a  rule  about  twenty  good  sized  steers  will  fill  a  car; 
however,  one  should  not  rely  on  any  given  number,  but 
rather  go  by  the  amount  of  space  in  the  car.  That  is,  always 
fill  the  car  just  as  full  as  it  will  hold  of  cattle  of  a  uniform 
size.  By  allowing  the  animals  too  much  space  they  will  push, 
fight  and  jam  each  other  so  that  they  will  shrink  considera- 
bly more  than  if  they  are  crowded  enough  to  keep  them 
quiet.  If  the  shipping  takes  place  in  mid-summer,  when  it 
is  very  warm,  care  must  be  taken  to  supply  the  animals  with 
plenty  of  water  on  the  car. 

If  the  steers  are  on  full  feed  in  a  dry  lot  the  same  pre- 
cautions practically,  as  above  mentioned,  will  suffice.  How- 
ever, less  time  or  trouble  will  be  required  to  get  the  animals 
in  good  shipping  condition.  The  full  feed  ration  of  grain 
should  be  reduced  to  one-half,  a  couple  of  days  before  ship- 
ping. 

Whatever  distance  one  has  to  ship,  he  should  make  it  a 
point  to  have  the  cattle  arrive  at  the  sale  yards  at  5  a.  m., 
or  at  least  never  later  than  8  a.  m.  By  such  procedure  the 
animals  can  be  fed  and  watered  and  thereby  make  a  favora- 
ble impression  on  the  buyer,  as  they  will  evidently  be 
straightened  up  and  appear  fairly  plump  or  full.  In  watering 
cattle  in  the  yards  do  not  allow  them  to  suck  and  drink  at 
a  half  or  nearly  empty  trough,  because  they  are  certain  to 
partially  fill  themselves  with  air  instead  of  water,  thus  caus- 
ing them  to  appear  full,  yet  weigh  light. 


PREPARATION  FOR  MARKET.  167 

It  is  also  important  that  the  cattle  be  treated  decently 
while  in  the  care  of  the  train  crew.  That  is,  one  should  not 
allow  his  cattle  to  be  abused  by  rough  switching,  etc.,  on 
the  road.  In  other  words,  always  strive  to  reduce  the  excite- 
ment of  the  changes  to  a  minimum,  and  above  all  things,  do 
not  run  the  cattle  with  a  horse  or  dog,  or  allow  boisterous 
men  to  abuse  them  while  loading  or  unloading. 


LECTURE  XXXVII. 


STABLING  SUITABLE  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE. 

Live  stock  farming  can  be  successfully  followed  without 
the  aid  of  expensive  stabling,  but  protection  from  the  severe- 
cold  and  wind  must  be  provided. 

One  must  first  study  the  conditions  of  his  locality  so  that, 
he  may  arrive  at  the  best  and  cheapest  methods  to  be  used 
in  construction  of  a  barn.  He  must  also  construct  it  so  that 
it  will  be  adapted  to  the  country,  feed  and  animals.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  eastern  and  north-eastern  districts,  where 
plenty  of  stone  is  available,  it  is  usually  expedient  to  build 
stone  foundations  or  basement  walls. 

The  custom  in  localities  where  plenty  of  stone  can  be 
obtained  on  the  farm  is  that  of  building  a  side-hill  or  bank 
barn.  That  is,  they  select  a  bank  or  side  hill  in  order  to 
reduce  the  approach  to  the  second  floor  to  a  minimum.  Some 
build  stone  walls  all  around  the  basement,  while  others  only 
use  stone  against  the  bank.  When  the  bank  wall  is  built  of" 
stone  and  the  balance  of  the  basement  of  wood,  as  a  rule 
the  stable  is  not  as  damp  as  when  the  walls  are  all  stone. 
Brick  may  also  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  stone,  but  it 
is  very  expensive  for  the  average  farmer.  Such  barns  should 
be  well  ventilated  if  the  animals  are  expected  to  keep  healthy. 
Never  allow  the  ventilator  ducts  to  open  near  the  ceiling, 
as  this  has  a  tendency  to  draw  off  the  warm  air.  It  is  always 
better  to  have  the  air  come  in  and  go  out  near  the  floor  of 
the  barn,  so  that  an  even  temperature  can  be  kept  at  all 
times  and  as  much  of  the  heat  conserved  as  possible. 

The  above  kind  of  barn  is  well  adapted  for  conditions 
where  large  quantities  of  roots,  ensilage  and  foods  of  a  sim- 
ilar nature  are  fed.  In  such  close,  warm  barns  the  food 
required  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  animal  body  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum;  and  an  abundance  of  feed  can  be  stored  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  barn. 

The  construction  of  prairie  or  western  stables,  however, 
is  something  which  we  are  more  concerned  with  than  those- 


STABLING  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE.  169 

of  the  east.  In  constructing  a  barn  in  the  west  one  should 
take  into  consideration  the  number  of  animals  he  intends  to 
house  and  the  amount  of  shelter  in  the  form  of  trees,  he 
has  at  hand.  In  many  of  the  prairie  districts  rock  or  brick 
is  too  expensive  for  the  farmer  to  think  of  using  them  except 
for  foundation  purposes.  If  one  is  building  a  barn  for  pure 
bred  stock,  he  should  build  it  large  enough  to  hold  all  his 
cows  tied  up;  and  there  should  be  room  for  bulls  and  calves 
in  box  stalls.  All  young  stock,  such  as  heifers,  are  fully  as 
well  off  in  comfortable  sheds  and  well  sheltered  yards.  If 
the  animals  are  to  be  fed  largely  on  corn  or  food  of  a  car- 
bonaceous nature  the  stabling  need  not  be  made  very  close 
or  warm.  Where  a  large  number  are  kept  in  one  barn,  it  will 
be  found  warm  enough  if  the  walls  are  simply  made  of  inch 
boards.  Of  course  all  space  or  cracks  between  the  boards 
should  be  covered.  A  better  and  a  more  substantial  wall, 
however,  is  obtained  by  placing  common  boards  on  the  stud- 
ding; then  paper  on  top  of  them  and  finishing  outside  with 
drop  siding.  In  such  a  barn  one  can  feed  considerable  roots, 
ensilage  or  watery  foods  very  satisfactorily.  In  constructing 
the  basement  everything  should  be  arranged  so  that  the 
greatest  number  can  be  housed  and  attended  with  the  least 
labor  possible.  That  is,  one  should  have  the  feed  room  and 
all  the  mature  animals  near  the  center  of  the  barn,  so  that 
the  bulk  of  the  feed  will  only  have  to  be  carried  a  short  dis- 
tance. It  may  seem  unwise  to  keep  the  young  animals,  such 
as  calves,  in  the  outside  box  stalls:  however,  all  things  con- 
sidered, it  is  the  best  system.  That  is,  the  calves  can  be  put 
in  stalls  directly  behind  their  mothers;  the*  droppings  from 
the  cows  can  be  readily  cleaned  out  with  a  wheelbarrow 
every  day  and  the  box  stalls  at  intervals  of  once  or  twice  a 
week  with  the  wagon.  In  tying  up  cows  or  matured  animals 
a  stanchion  is  not  a  fit  tie.  Some  prefer  to  have  a  cow  tied 
in  a  single  stall,  but  such  a  method  is  better  adapted  to  dairy 
purposes  than  any  other.  It  is  true  when  such  a  method  of 
tying  is  employed  there  is  less  danger  of  cows  tramping  on 
each  other's  teats,  etc.  In  order  to  economize  space  it  is  not 
advisable  to  tie  cows  separately,  but  instead  it  is  far  better 
to  tie  them  in  pairs  by  chains.  Bulls  of  all  ages  should  be 
kept  in  box  stalls,  which  should  have  doors  opening  to  the 
outside.  Water  should  be  available  in  the  barn,  so  that  the 
cattle  may  be  watered  inside  on  extremely  cold  days  in 
winter. 


170  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

In  regard  to  floors  that  one  should  use  in  a  barn,  there  is 
considerable  difference  of  opinion.  A  plank  floor  will  last 
from  3  to  5  years,  or  longer,  providing  it  is  kept  dry  or  wet 
continually.  If  allowed  to  become  wet  one  season  and  dry 
during  the  other,  the  life  of  a  floor  is  usually  very  short.  If 
one  is  desirous  of  obtaining  a  permanent  floor,  cement  is 
undoubtedly  the  best.  Some  maintain  that  a  cement  floor 
is  too  cold  and  that  it  is  dangerous  for  pregnant  cows  to  walk 
on;  this  trouble,  however,  can  largely  if  not  altogether,  be 
overcome  by  bedding  properly;  something  which  should  be 
done  by  every  stockman  on  any  kind  of  a  floor. 

For  feeding  cattle  inexpensive  buildings  will  suffice  in 
the  majority  of  cases.  Most  of  the  meat  in  the  west  that  is 
sent  to  market  is  produced  by  out-of-door  feeding;  however, 
it  is  the  poorest  sort  of  economy  to  feed  too  much  grain  to 
the  wind  or  elements.  Sheltered  feed  yards  are  a  necessity 
if  the  largest  profits  are  to  be  reaped.  If  one  has  a  good 
grove  around  his  buildings  so  that  the  penetrating  winds  will 
be  checked,  sheds  will  furnish  comfortable  enough  quarters 
for  cattle  on  full  feed.  The  food  of  support  required  is  much 
larger  on  a  windy  day  for  an  unprotected  animal  than  for  one 
that  is  sheltered  from  the  blasts,  just  as  increased  fuel  is 
demanded  for  the  stove  with  unchecked  draft.  Close 
stabling — such  as  tying  up  in  a  stable — has  been  found  im- 
practicable in  the  west.  Cattle  will  do  better  where  they 
have  their  freedom  and  reasonable  shelter.  If  one  is  unable 
to  build  permanent  substantial  sheds  which  will  keep  animals 
comfortable,  a  simple  and  cheap  shed  or  shelter  can  be 
obtained  by  stacking  hay,  straw  or  fodder,  forming  an  L- 
shaped  corner.  Then  by  setting  a  few  poles  for  a  straw- 
thatched  roof,  the  cold  rains,  sleets,  snows  and  winds  of  our 
prairie  states  can  be  warded  off.  A  man  who  furnishes  his 
feeding  animals  with  thorough  protection  from  the  wind  and 
gives  them  tempered  water  to  drink,  needs  not  consult  his 
pocketbook  for  costly  buildings.  The  fundamental  truth  in 
feeding  should  always  be  borne  in  mind;  self-preservation  is 
the  first  law  of  nature.  There  is  no  use  of  pampering,  as  this 
only  tends  to  enervate  animals;  nor  is  close  housing  advisa- 
ble, as  this  has  a  tendency  to  weaken  the  system  and  bring 
on  disease.  There  is  loss  in  each  extreme;  thus  the  stock- 
man should  strive  to  find  the  happy  medium. 


LECTURE  XXXIII. 


REARING   DAIRY  CALVES. 

It  is  with  the  dairy  animals  just  as  with  the  beef  animal. 
If  we  are  going  to  derive  the  greatest  amount  of  gain  from 
them,  we  must  start  them  right  when  young  things.  The 
beef  animal  is  trained  from  birth  to  put  on  flesh.  The  dairy 
animal  should  be  trained  from  birth  with  a  view  to  the  pro- 
duction of  milk.  This  must  be  our  ideal — a  cow  that  is 
capable  of  consuming  and  digesting  large  quantities  of  suit- 
able food  and  capable  also  of  exchanging  that  food  into  milk 
rather  than  into  flesh  and  fat,  except  what  is  required  to 
keep  her  body  in  a  strong  and  healthy  condition. 

In  order  to  get  this  kind  of  cow  we  must  start  with  the 
calf  and  feed  it  right.  Do  not  feed  it  foods  that  tend  to  fat- 
ten. Let  it  have  its  mother's  whole  milk  for  three  or  four 
days.  The  calf  should  always  have  its  mother's  first  milk. 
For  the  next  four  weeks  continue  giving  it  warm  sweet  milk, 
a  part  of  which  may  be  skim  milk  at  the  start.  At  the  end 
of  two  weeks  skim  milk  may  be  substituted  in  whole  for  the 
whole  milk.  At  this  time,  when  the  whole  milk  is  taken 
away,  it  is  a  good  thing  to  add  a  little  oil  meal  to  take  the 
place  of  the  nutrients  which  are  lost  by  taking  away  the 
whole  milk.  Begin  with  about  a  tablespoonful  a  day,  in 
the  form  of  gruel  or  flaxseed  jelly,  and  gradually  increase 
this  to  two  tablespoonfuls  a  day.  Flaxseed  jelly  is  made  by 
boiling  the  seed,  while  the  gruel  is  prepared  by  steeping  the 
oil  meal  in  water. 

Do  not  overfeed  your  calf.  When  the  calf  is  young, 
feed  at  least  three  times  a  day,  having  the  milk  warmed  to 
blood  heat. 

Four  to  six  quarts  a  day  fed  in  three  feeds  should  be 
enough  for  a  calf  up  to  eight  weeks  old,  when  two  feeds  are 
sufficient,  and  the  quantity  of  milk  can  be  increased  as  the 
calf  grows  older  until  20  to  24  pounds  is  reached. 

By  this  time  the  calf  will  begin  to  nibble  at  hay  if  it 
can  get  it.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  some  nice  early  cut 
clover  hay  to  put  in  its  manger.  If  you  feed  new  clover  in 


111!  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

the  summer,  be  sure  to  have  it  cut  some  time  before  and 
allow  it  to  wilt  before  feeding.  Ground  oats,  bran  or  shorts 
may  be  given  it  now.  It  can  be  easily  taught  to  eat  them, 
too.  Take  a  little  in  your  hand  when  you  go  to  feed  it  milk, 
and  when  it  has  finished  let  it  rub  its  nose  in  your  hand. 
Some  of  the  oats  will  stick  to  its  nose.  It  will  lick  them 
off,  and  by  repeating  this  a  few  times  the  calf  will  have 
acquired  a  liking  for  them,  when  they  can  be  placed  in  its 
manger.  This  method  of  feeding  may  be  continued  until 
the  calf  is  seven  to  eight  months  old.  As  has  been  stated 
at  the  outset,  this  method  of  feeding  the  dairy  calf  is  not 
intended  to  produce  fat,  but  it  develops  a  strong,  well 
muscled  frame.  If  the  calf  has  been  furnished  sufficient 
palatable  coarse  fodder,  it  will  have  developed,  too,  a  large 
roomy  abdomen  and  digestive  organs,  without  which  we  can 
have  no  dairy  animal.  The  greatest  success  has  been 
achieved  with  calves  dropped  in  the  fall.  In  the  winter  time 
the  farmer  has  more  time  to  care  for  them,  and  when  spring 
comes  and  with  it  the  succulent,  nutritious  grass  of  the  pas- 
tures, the  young  thing  can  be  turned  out  and  will  make 
steady  and  rapid  growth. 

Above  all  things  do  not  allow  your  dairy  animals  to 
acquire  the  habit  of  putting  on  fat.  If  you  do  so  by  feeding 
them  fat  producing  foods,  such  as  corn,  timothy  hay,  etc., 
you  will  spoil  what  otherwise  might  have  been  an  excellent 
dairy  animal. 

The  calf  should  for  the  first  few  months  be  kept  inside 
in  clean,  comfortable  quarters,  with  plenty  of  light  and  pure 
air.  Keep  the  young  things  healthy.  In  winter  they  should 
be  protected  from  the  cold,  and  in  summer  from  the  heat  and 
flies.  Never  allow  grain  to  be  left  over  in  the  manger  from 
one  feeding  time  to  another.  Cleanliness  should  also  be 
observed  in  the  matter  of  feeding  the  calf  from  a  clean  pail. 
Do  not  ask  the  calf  to  drink  from  a  sour,  foul  smelling  pail, 
as  this  may  give  rise  to  serious  digestive  trouble.  This 
method  applies  to  both  heifer  and  bull  calves. 


LECTURE  XXXIX. 


FEED,    CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    DAIRY 
HEIFERS. 

The  young  heifers  are  taken  in  from  the  pasture  in  the 
pink  of  condition.  They  should  not  be  fat,  but  they 
should  be  growthy  and  thrifty  looking,  with  bright  eyes  and 
large  nostrils.  Their  coats  should  be  sleek  and  glossy.  A 
large,  roomy  abdomen  will  indicate  a  large  digestive  tract 
in  which  to  make  good  use  of  large  quantities  of  roughage, 
such  as  corn  stalks,  hay,  alfalfa  and  silage. 

Provide  good,  comfortable  quarters  and  feed  good 
muscle  and  bone  forming  ration  made  up  of  clover  hay,  corn 
silage,  roots,  a  little  bran  or  ground  oats,  with  some  corn 
fodder  and  straw  once  in  a  while  for  a  change.  Bear  in 
mind  that  the  heifer,  like  the  calf,  must  not  acquire  the 
habit  of  putting  on  fat;  so  beware  of  corn  or  other  fat 
producing  foods.  Silage  and  roots  will  take  the  place  of  the 
succulent  pasture  grass  and  will  tend  to  keep  them  in  good 
health. 

When  to  Breed  Her. — The  heifer  should  be  bred  at  from 
15  to  20  months,  so  that  she  will  freshen  (drop  her  calf)  for 
the  first  time  at  from  2  to  2%  years  of  age.  Let  her  begin 
her  life  duties  at  an  early  age.  Giving  birth  to  her  first 
offspring  is  a  trying  time  in  the  life  of  the  young  heifer. 
•Comfort  and  kindness  should  not  be  spared  her.  Up  to  this 
time  she  should  be  handled  and  made  entirely  familiar  with 
her  attendant,  the  cattleman,  whoever  he  may  be.  Even 
then  she  will  be  timid  at  this  time.  Place  her  in  a  comfort- 
able box  stall  when  she  shows  signs  of  parturition,  so  that 
you  can  be  near  to  show  her  such  attentions  as  she  may 
require.  A  couple  of  days  before  parturition  reduce  her 
ration  somewhat  and  give  her  a  dose  of  salts  as  a  drench. 
This  will  have  a  tendency  to  prevent  milk  fever  and  other 
troubles  which  might  arise  at  this  time. 

After  calving  do  not  allow  her  to  have  any  cold  water 
for  24  hours.  Give  her  a  little  tepid  water  to  drink,  and  if 


174  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

she  need  nourishment,  make  a  thin  gruel  which  she  can 
drink.  After  this,  she  may  be  put  on  a  light  ration  of  hay, 
silage,  roots,  and  grain  (oats,  bran,  ground  peas,  a  little  oil 
meal  or  gluten  feed),  which  may  be  gradually  increased  until 
at  3  or  4  weeks  she  may  be  on  full  ration. 

Do  not  allow  her  calf  to  suck  her  more  than  two  days 
at  most.  The  quicker  it  is  weaned,  the  better  for  both  calf 
and  cow.  Sometimes  a  heifer  wants  her  calf  so  badly  that 
she  will  be  inclined  to  hold  up  her  milk  unless  it  is  present. 
This  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  using  a  little  kindness. 
Never  whip  her  or  abuse  her  in  any  way  to  make  her  give 
down  her  milk.  Treat  her  kindly.  It  pays.  You  have  the 
making  or  spoiling  of  what  otherwise  might  be  a  first-class 
cow.  Try  the  plan  of  having  her  calf  near  enough  so  she 
can  lick  it  while  you  draw  the  milk  from  her.  Repeat  this 
a  few  times  and  pretty  soon  the  calf  can  be  removed  alto- 
gether. It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  feed  a  cow  to  get  her  to 
give  down  her  milk.  When  the  operation  of  milking  is  going 
on  the  cow  and  the  man  should  be  working  in  perfect  har- 
mony. 

Keep  her  milking  just  as  long  as  you  can  get  a  drop  of 
milk  from  her  at  this  first  milking  period.  Feed  her  well  on 
milk  producing  foods  and  make  her  milk  11  months.  Don't 
let  her  dry  up.  She  must  form  the  habit  of  milking  for  a 
long  time  and  of  giving  large  quantities.  Feed  and  manage- 
ment have  much  to  do  with  her  acquiring  this  habit.  Do 
not  allow  her  to  be  bred  right  away  after  dropping  her  first 
calf.  This  has  been  a  severe  trial  to  her  and  she  should 
have  time  to  recuperate.  Breed  her  so  that  she  will  drop 
her  second  calf  not  less  than  15  months  from  first  fresh- 
ening. 

If,  during  her  second  period  of  lactation,  she  does  not 
give  upwards  of  6,000  pounds  of  milk  or  make  250  pounds  of 
butter,  she  should  be  disposed  of,  as  she  will  not  make  a  cow 
that  will  pay  her  way  as  a  dairy  cow. 

A  heifer's  first  calf,  if  a  heifer,  should  not  be  kept  for  a 
dairy  cow. 


LECTURE  XL. 


THE    WINTER    CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    THE 
DAIRY   HERD. 

There  was  a  time  not  so  long  ago  when  the  dairy  cow's 
work  was  done  almost  entirely  in  the  summer.  Her  master 
thought  it  was  asking  too  much  of  her  to  give  milk  during 
the  cold  months  of  winter  and  thought  that  a  ten  months' 
lactation  period  was  too  great  a  strain  upon  her  nervous 
system. 

During  the  winter  months  he  allowed  her  to  eat  straw 
or  corn  stalks  without  any  grain.  She  ran  out  of  doors  much 
of  the  time,  taking  shelter  on  the  lee  side  of  a  stack  or  rail 
fence. 

She  was  forced  to  travel  perhaps  a  long  distance  to  a 
spring  or  creek  in  order  to  satisfy  her  thirst.  No  grain  was 
ever  seen  in  her  manger. 

Times  and  conditions  have  changed  and  the  dairyman 
has  changed,  and  the  dairy  cow  has  become  a  veritable 
machine  used  for  the  purpose  of  converting  plant  food  into 
rich  milk.  The  dairy  cow  is  now  kept  for  profit.  In  many 
places  she  is  kept  milking  almost  the  year  round.  She  is  a 
constant  care,  and  to  this  care  responds  with  an  increased 
flow  of  milk  containing  a  high  percentage  of  butter  fat. 

Many  follow  the  plan  of  having  their  dairy  cows  freshen 
in  the  fall  or  early  winter.  There  is  usually  more  available 
labor  then  to  care  for  them.  Dairy  products,  too,  have  a 
higher  value  then  as  a  rule.  The  cow  has  to  be  fed,  housed, 
ana  kept  in  good  condition.  If  she  is  milking,  the  same  labor 
with  a  little  more  feed  will  bring  a  profit  to  her  owner. 
When  she  has  milked  five  or  six  months  and  is  beginning 
to  let  up  a  little  on  the  flow,  the  spring  is  here  and  with  it 
the  fresh,  green,  succulent  pasture  grass,  and  being  turned 
out  on  this  the  flow  is  increased  and  she  is  encouraged  to 
go  on,  giving  a  good  amount  for  four  or  five  months,  when 
she  will  begin  to  slack  up  to  get  ready  for  another  lactation 
period. 


176  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

The  first  thing  to  see  to  is  that  the  dairy  cow  be  pro- 
vided with  a  stable  where  she  will  be  warm  and  comfort- 
able in  every  respect.  Cleanliness  should  prevail  in  her 
quarters.  Her  attendant  should  be  kind  and  gentle  in  all 
his  dealings  with  her.  An  animal  with  such  a  high  nervous 
temperament,  and  one  from  which  so  much  is  expected, 
should  never  receive  the  slightest  unkindness.  Her  feed 
should  consist  of  milk  producing  elements.  The  feeder  must 
study  the  likes  and  dislikes  of  his  several  individual  cows. 
He  must  study  the  individuality  of  each  cow  and  suit  his 
feeds  to  them.  A  good  and  suitable  ration  for  the  dairy  cow 
is  made  up  of  clover  hay,  corn  silage,  roots,  some  cornstalks 
and  straw  for  variety,  with  a  grain  mixture  consisting  of 
oats,  barley,  peas,  a  little  oil  meal  or  gluten  feed.  Science 
and  practice  working  together  have  demonstrated  that  a 
ration  consisting  of  1  part  protein  to  B1/^  to  6  parts  carbohy- 
drates, is  most  suitable  for  her  when  in  milk.  Feed  her  lib- 
erally with  the  cheaper,  bulkier  foods,  making  them  pala- 
table. Feed  meal  and  other  concentrated  foods,  according 
to  the  milk  flow.  Ten  pounds  of  clover  hay,  30  to  40  pounds 
roots,  and  30  pounds  silage,  with  8  pounds  grain  mixture  for 
every  30  pounds  of  milk  (2^  gals.),  has  proven  itself  to  be 
a  good  ration.  The  grain  mixture  may  consist  of  4  pounds 
bran,  2%  pounds  ground  oats,  \yz  pounds  oil  meal  or  gluten 
meal  per  day.  This  ration  may  be  increased  so  long  as  the 
cow  responds  and  there  are  no  signs  of  indigestion.  Feed 
this  ration  morning  and  evening,  and  at  noon  give  a  small 
feed  of  coarse  hay  or  straw. 

Some  follow  the  plan  of  cutting  the  hay  and  pulping  the 
roots,  where  such  are  fed.  These  are  mixed  in  the  feed 
room  by  putting  down  a  layer  of  cut  hay,  then  a  layer  of 
roots,  and  then  a  layer  of  silage.  This  is  allowed  to  stand 
for  12  hours  before  feeding.  This  makes  the  whole  mass 
soft  and  palatable.  One  of  the  secrets  of  success  in  the  dairy 
business  is  that  of  making  the  cow  consume  a  great  deal  of 
coarse  but  nutritious  fodder.  It  pays  to  cut  up  the  roughage 
and  the  roots  and  also  to  grind  the  grain.  By  doing  this  you 
relieve  the  cow  of  a  good  deal  of  grinding  and  she  remuner- 
ates you  by  a  larger  flow  of  milk.  Study  to  give  her  a 
variety  of  food.  Make  it  palatable,  watch  her  manger,  and 
see  that  nothing  is  left  over  from  one  meal  to  another.  If 
a  cow  is  inclined  to  put  on  too  much  fat,  reduce  the  carbo- 


WINTER  CARE  OF  HERD.  177 

hydrates.  If  she  is  inclined  to  grow  thin,  increase  the  car- 
bohydrates. She  should  have  access  to  clean,  fresh  water 
at  least  twice  a  day.  Water  for  the  dairy  cow  should  not  be 
ice  cold.  She  should  never  receive  a  chill  from  any  cause. 
If  she  does,  serious  trouble  may  be  the  result.  Never  allow 
her  flow  of  milk  to  slacken  from  want  of  good,  intelligent 
care.  It  is  much  easier  to  keep  her  right  than  it  is  to  get  her 
back  to  her  flow  again  if  she  has  once  had  a  set-back.  You 
cannot  afford  to  let  cows  stand  out  in  the  wind  around  a 
trough  and  struggle  with  each  other  to  get  a  place  to  drink. 

Give  them  a  little  salt  every  day.  About  an  ounce  or  an 
ounce  and  a  half  to  a  cow  per  day.  They  want  it  and  should 
have  it,  especially  when  they  are  getting  grain. 

Never  should  there  be  any  unusual  noise  in  the  dairy 
stable.  The  dairy  cow  demands  quietness  and  gentleness. 
Noise  and  bluster  around  her  are  profit  killers.  You  are  the 
master,  it  is  true,  but  you  must  acquiesce  in  this  and  cater 
to  her  demands.  Think  twice  before  you  shout  at  her  or  hit 
her  with  a  shovel.  You  may  be  able  to  beat  her  and  you 
may  be  able  to  scare  her,  but  if  you  do  either  you  have  yet 
to  learn  that  you  do  not  understand  the  dairy  cow's  make- 
up. Treat  her  kindly.  Sacrifice  a  little  in  order  to  cater  to 
her  whims  and  she  will  more  than  repay  you. 

Give  her  a  clean,  soft  bed  of  straw  to  lie  on.  Do  not  ask 
her  to  lie  on  hard  boards  or  cold  cement  floor.  She  deserves 
better.  Make  her  comfortable. 

Everything  should  be  quiet  at  milking  time.  She  must 
be  milked  at  the  same  time  every  day,  and  that  by  the  same 
person,  if  possible.  A  cow  giving  10  pounds  will  do  with  one 
milking  a  day.  Others  should  be  milked  twice  a  day  12 
hours  apart.  When  cows  are  in  the  stable  they  should  be 
brushed  and  curried  often,  to  free  the  skin  from  excretions. 
The  udder  should  always  be  wiped  off  carefully  before  start- 
ing to  milk.  Cows  should  be  let  out  a  little  while  each  day 
in  a  sheltered  barnyard,  but  not  kept  out  long  enough  to 
become  chilled. 


LECTURE  XLI. 


SUMMER   CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  THE   DAIRY 
HERD. 

It  is  not  a  good  practice  to  turn  cattle  out  to  grass  too 
early  in  the  spring.  The  pastures  are  often  soft  and  they 
will  be  much  injured  by  being  cut  up  by  the  cattle's  feet. 
The  young  grass,  too,  is  soft  and  washy.  If  the  cows  are 
kept  off  it  until  the  middle  or  20th  of  May,  the  grass  then 
will  have  a  good  growth  and  will  be  able  to  shelter  the 
ground  so  that  it  will  protect  itself  against  the  drouth  which 
comes  in  July  and  August.  The  grass  will  then  be  less  watery 
and  will  be  much  more  nutritious.  When  the  warm  weather 
comes  let  the  cows  have  the  run  of  the  yard,  but  do  not  let 
them  get  a  taste  of  the  new  grass,  for  if  they  do  they  will 
not  take  well  to  the  dry  hay  and  other  preserved  foods. 
When  it  is  time  to  turn  them  on  the  grass,  let  them  out  only 
for  an  hour  or  so  at  first,  gradually  increasing  the  time  until 
in  three  or  four  days  they  can  be  left  out  altogether. 

Cows  do  not  require  any  grain  when  the  grass  is  good 
in  the  pastures.  Have  salt  where  they  can  have  ready 
access  to  it  at  all  times.  Chunks  of  rock  salt  placed  here 
and  there  in  the  pasture  serves  very  well. 

Provide  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water.  Do  not 
allow  your  dairy  cows  to  drink  out  of  a  dirty,  stagnant  pool. 
A  well  is  better,  and  a  clean  tank  or  trough.  See  that  the 
drinking  troughs  are  kept  free  from  filth. 

The  cow  should  not  be  asked  to  spend  energy  walking 
back  and  forth  to  a  distant  pasture.  Bear  in  mind  that  her 
work  is  to  manufacture  milk  for  you,  and  it  is  your  duty  to 
provide  the  raw  material  and  have  it  in  a  convenient  place 
for  her,  if  you  expect  her  to  give  you  a  good  return. 

It  is  well  to  make  provision  for  the  hot,  dry  weather  in 
.July  and  August,  when  blue  grass  has  gone  to  seed  and  the 
pastures  become  brown  and  seared.  The  dried  up  blue  grass 
is  nutritious,  it  is  true,  but  the  dairy  cow  must  have  succu- 


SUMMER  CARE  OF  HERD.  179 

lent  food.  Silage  may  have  been  stored  for  summer  use.  If 
so,  now  is  the  time  to  use  it.  You  may  have  sowed  oats  and 
peas  in  the  proportion  of  1%  oats  to  1  of  peas  for  your  dairy 
cows.  Now  is  the  time  to  cut  it  and  draw  it  to  the  barn  for 
them.  Do  not  throw  this  feed  over  the  fence  to  them.  Put 
it  in  their  mangers.  Be  sure  that  something  has  been  pro- 
vided for  the  dairy  cows  at  this  time  of  the  year. 

Then,  too,  the  flies  are  bad  in  June  and  July,  and  if 
allowed  to  bother  the  cows  will  cause  a  material  decrease 
in  the  flow  of  milk.  You  cannot  afford  to  let  this  go  un- 
noticed. A  preparation  made  of  fish  oil  and  crude  carbolic 
acid  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  a  tablespoonful  of  carbolic 
acid  to  one  quart  of  fish  oil,  if  applied  once  a  week  to  all 
parts  of  the  cow  except  the  udder,  will  prevent  the  flies  both- 
ering her. 

Shade  should  be  provided  where  the  cows  can  get  out 
of  the  heat  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

Forbid  it  that  any  dairyman  should  allow  his  cows  to 
be  chased  with  a  dog.  It  will  pay  you  to  walk  after  them. 
The  more  hurry  in  this  case  the  less  milk.  Even  a  boy  on 
horseback  will  often  drive  the  cows  too  fast.  Be  a  friend  of 
your  cattle.  Love  begets  love,  even  in  your  dairy  cows. 

Provide  a  shelter  also  against  the  cold  winds  and  rains 
of  October.  Milk  them  as  you  did  in  the  winter,  always  at 
the  same  time,  quietly,  gently,  but  speedily.  When  you  have 
finished  milking,  do  not  sit  and  strip.  It  annoys  the  cow. 

Keep  in  mind  both  summer  and  winter  never  to  allow 
your  dairy  cow  to  have  a  set-back  in  the  flow  of  milk. 


LECTURE  XLII. 


FEEDS    ADAPTED    TO    THE    PRODUCTION    OF    MILK 
DURING    THE    WINTER    MONTHS. 

Clover  hay  nicely  cured  is  the  best  roughage  that  can 
be  offered  the  dairy  cow.  This  feed  is  highly  nitrogenous 
and  contains  a  large  amount  of  mineral  matter.  It  is  admi- 
rably suited  to  the  production  of  milk.  About  10  to  12 
pounds  per  cow  per  day  should  be  the  allowance.  If  clean 
and  well  cured,  it  is  better  to  feed  it  long,  as  in  this  form  it 
is  freer  from  dust  than  when  cut. 

In  some  sections,  especially  Canada,  roots  (mangels)  are 
fed  in  large  quantities  to  dairy  cattle  in  winter.  Corn  silage 
has  proven  itself  quite  as  valuable  and  can  be  more  cheaply 
secured.  It  is  simply  the  stalks,  leaves  and  ears  cut  up  into 
small  half-inch  lengths  and  stored  away  in  an  air-tight  can 
called  a  silo.  The  corn  should  be  fairly  well  matured  before 
it  is  stored  away. 

Corn  silage  is  highly  carbonaceous,  but  because  of  its 
succulence  is  a  very  acceptable  ingredient  in  the  dairy  cow's 
ration.  With  a  little  clover  hay  or  alfalfa  added,  the  ration 
can  be  easily  balanced.  About  30  to  40  pounds  is  fed  daily. 
From  this  you  can  reckon  that  about  4  tons  of  silage  should 
be  stored  away  for  the  dairy  cow  to  tide  her  through  the 
winter  months.  She  cannot  subsist  and  do  work  on  silage 
alone,  but  must  be  supplied  with  clover  hay  and  other  food- 
stuffs. 

Corn  stalks,  if  cut  and  cured  properly,  make  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  timothy  hay.  Sometimes  they  are  fed  whole  with 
ears  attached.  When  fed  this  way  there  is  always  a  little 
waste,  as  the  cows  will  leave  the  coarser  stalks  after  strip- 
ping them  of  the  ears  and  tender  leaves. 

Another  method  is  followed  sometimes — that  of  running 
the  stalks,  leaves  and  ears  through  a  cutter.  When  this  cut 
stuff  is  fed,  the  cows  leave  nothing. 

In  the  corn  belt  there  is  a  great  deal  of  what  is  known 
as  corn  stover.  This  is  the  dried  stalks  and  leaves  after  the 


WINTER  FEEDS  FOR  DAIRY  COWS.  181 

corn  has  been  husked.  Much  of  this  is  dry  and  hard  and  not 
very  palatable.  The  cows  will  make  use  of  the  leaves  and 
bits  of  fine  stalks,  but  this  should  be  fed  sparingly  to  dairy 
cows  and  should  be  supplemented  with  silage  or  roots  and 
clover. 

Timothy  hay  is  a  carbonaceous  food.  Because  of  its 
value  as  a  horse  feed  it  usually  is  too  high  priced  to  feed 
to  dairy  cows.  It  is  not  so  well  suited  to  milk  production 
as  clover  hay  or  alfalfa. 

Oat  and  barley  straw  are  sometimes  fed  to  dairy  cows. 
They  should  be  fed  sparingly,  too,  as  they  are  not  milk  pro- 
ducers. They  should  be  introduced  only  for  variety's  sake. 

Ground  oats  with  their  hulls  make  one  of  the  finest  feeds 
for  the  dairy  cow.  The  hulls  lighten  up  the  feed  and  make 
it  a  very  safe  feed;  besides  it  is  highly  nitrogenous  and 
proves  a  good  milk  producer. 

Oat  hulls  from  oat  meal  factories  would  be  valuable 
only  to  use  in  lightening  up  a  heavy  grain,  such  as  corn  or 
pease. 

In  the  corn  belt  corn  must  of  necessity  form  a  part  of 
the  dairy  cow's  ration.  Corn  on  the  average  is  a  highly  car- 
bonaceous feed.  Four  or  five  pounds  per  day  may  be  fed,  but 
this  should  be  supplemented  with  wheat  bran,  and  some  oil 
cake  or  gluten  meal.  Corn,  if  fed  alone,  would  tend  to  pro- 
duce fat  and  not  milk. 

Barley  is  an  excellent  milk  producing  feed  and  in  some 
places  is  fed  very  largely  to  dairy  cows. 

Where  wheat  bran  can  be  purchased  at  a  reasonable 
price  nothing  better  could  be  obtained  for  milk  production. 
Bran  for  a  long  time  was  considered  of  little  value,  but  since 
the  dairymen  found  out  its  value  in  their  business  the  de- 
mand far  exceeds  the  supply,  and  it  is  almost  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  men  who  gave  it  its  popularity.  It  is  extremely 
rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  and  because  of  its  light 
character  is  a  very  valuable  complement  to  corn. 

Brewer's  grains,  too,  are  rich  in  protein  and  are  highly 
prized  as  feed  for  dairy  animals.  When  situated  near  the 
source  of  supply  these  are  obtained  in  a  wet  form.  The 
cows  like  them  when  they  are  obtained  fresh  and  sweet. 


182  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

Gluten  meal,  gluten  feed  and  other  by-products  of  corn 
are  rich  in  protein  and  are  valuable  additions  to  the  grain 
ration  for  dairy  cows. 

New  process  and  old  process  oil  meals  and  cottonseed 
meal  are  among  the  most  valuable  of  the  concentrated  nitro- 
genous feeding  stuffs  at  the  disposal  of  dairymen. 

In  the  choice  of  feeds,  if  any  are  required,  to  supplement 
the  home  grown  feeding  stuffs,  the  market  price  together 
with  the  composition  and  palatability  should  be  the  guide. 


LECTURE  XLIII. 


FEEDS    ADAPTED    TO    THE    PRODUCTION    OF    MILK 
DURING  THE  SUMMER   MONTHS. 

Dairy  cattle  can  receive  no  better  feed  in  summer  than 
that  which  nature  provides  for  them — grass. 

Cattle  up  to  their  knees  in  Kentucky  blue  grass  and 
clover  should  be  working  under  ideal  conditions.  Nothing 
stimulates  the  flow  of  milk  like  the  grass  in  June.  Unhap- 
pily for  the  dairy  cow  and  the  dairy  farmer  these  conditions 
will  not  last  all  summer.  Something  else  must  be  provided. 

Corn  silage  may  be  stored  in  a  small  silo  and  held  over 
for  summer  feeding.  This  with  a  little  grain  proves  a  valu- 
able substitute  for  the  grass. 

Corn  may  be  planted  near  the  barns  where  it  will  be 
handy  to  cut  and  draw  to  the  stables.  This,  too,  will  help 
very  materially  to  keep  up  the  milk  flow  which  might  other- 
wise drop  very  low.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  provide  such  a 
crop. 

Another  valuable  summer  feed  is  obtained  by  sowing 
peas  and  oats  in  the  proportion  of  1  bushel  of  peas  to  1% 
of  oats.  This  cut  green  in  July  and  August  is  one  of  the 
best  feeds  to  take  the  place  of  the  pasture  grass  and  will,  if 
fed  in  time,  raise  the  flow  of  milk.  Several  small  sowings 
of  this  mixture  should  be  made  in  order  to  insure  a  suc- 
cession of  cuttings. 

Millet  is  sometimes  used  as  a  soiling  crop,  and  if  fed  in 
small  quantities,  proves  very  satisfactory. 


LECTURE  XLIV. 


CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    COW    AT    CALVING 

TIME. 

Cows  never  do  so  well  as  when  they  are  on  grass.  It 
is  a  good  plan,  if  possible,  to  have  the  pregnant  cow,  when 
dry,  out  on  grass.  She  should  be  in  good  bodily  health  and 
condition  at  calving  time,  and  there  is  no  better  preparation 
for  this  than  out  on  grass. 

If  a  cow  is  confined  during  the  latter  stages  of  preg- 
nancy, she  should  receive  a  ration  of  clover  hay,  roots,  silage, 
corn  stalks,  a  little  ground  oats,  bran  and  oil  cake,  during  the 
last  month  or  so.  Near  the  time  of  parturition  the  feed  sup- 
ply should  be  reduced  and  a  couple  of  days  previous  to  calv- 
ing she  should  be  given  a  dose  of  salts  in  the  form  of  a 
drench.  Kindness,  too,  is  necessary  at  this  time.  Enclose 
her  in  a  box  stall.  If  it  is  a  heifer's  first  time,  rub  the 
udder  and  teats  at  least  twice  a  week  for  a  month  or  six 
weeks  previous  to  parturition.  This  will  tend  to  make  her 
quiet  as  well  as  give  shapeliness  to  udder  and  teats. 

After  the  calf  has  been  delivered,  give  the  cow  a  drink 
of  tepid  water.  A  little  oat  meal  put  in  the  water  will  help 
to  nourish  her.  Do  not  allow  her  anything  to  eat  for  several 
hours.  Begin  her  on  a  light  ration  and  keep  increasing 
until  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  weeks  she  can  be  put  on 
full  ration.  If  she  is  a  full  grown  cow,  you  can  breed  her 
again  the  first  or  second  heat,  or  at  such  time  as  it  will  suit 
your  conditions. 

Milk  fever  is  one  of  the  serious  troubles  which  you  must 
try  to  avoid.  This  is  best  done  by  keeping  the  cow's  bowels 
in  a  laxative  condition  and  by  lessening  the  milk  producing 
ration  for  a  time  before  and  after  calving. 

Allow  the  calf  to  take  the  colostrum  (first  milk)  from 
its  mother,  and  wean  it  in  not  more  than  two  days. 


LECTURE  XLV. 


.FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  DAIRY  BULL. 

The  bull  as  a  calf  may  be  reared  in  the  barn  along  with 
the  heifers,  for  a  time.  At  an  early  age  he  should  be  separated 
from  them  and  kept  in  a  separate  pen.  His  feed  should  be 
similar  to  theirs.  When  summer  comes,  have  a  yard  or 
paddock  with  a  strong  fence,  in  which  you  can  allow  him  to 
take  exercise.  Give  him  a  ration  of  clover  hay  and  oats, 
bran,  and  a  little  oil  cake,  with  plenty  of  pure  water.  Give 
him  protection  from  the  hot  sun  and  flies  in  summer.  He 
should  have  a  clean  box  stall  when  confined.  Put  a  ring  in 
his  nose  when  still  young,  at  say  ten  or  twelve  months  old. 
This  will  tend  to  make  him  more  tractable. 

Dairy  bulls  with  their  highly  nervous  temperament,  are 
-easily  made  vicious.  You  never  know  what  harm  a  vicious 
bull  is  going  to  do.  The  part  you  have  to  do  in  this  matter 
Is  never  to  tease  the  young  bull  or  allow  him  to  be  teased. 
To  tease  a  bull  is  criminal.  You  do  not  know  who  is  going 
to  be  the  victim.  Never  rub  him  on  the  head.  If  you  do, 
he  will  begin  to  play  with  his  horns,  and  before  you  know  it 
he  has  learned  that  he  has  horns,  and  then  comes  the  danger. 

The  young  bull  should  not  be  allowed  to  serve  cows 
until  at  least  18  months  old,  and  then  only  to  a  limited 
number.  At  2  years  old  he  may  have  30  to  40  cows,  and  at 
3  or  over,  if  service  is  well  distributed,  he  may  have  100 


When  he  is  in  service  he  should  be  well  fed.  A  narrow 
ration  of  clover  hay,  silage,  roots  and  a  fairly  heavy  grain 
ration  (8  pounds),  such  as  we  gave  the  dairy  cow  —  oats, 
bran,  peas,  oil  meal  or  gluten  feed  —  a  high  protein  ration. 

Never  let  your  bull  run  at  large  with  the  cows.  It  is 
dangerous  in  the  first  place,  besides  it  is  unfair  to  your 
neighbors.  They  may  have  a  preference  as  to  the  bull  they 
-will  use,  but  if  their  cows,  when  in  heat,  are  near  your  bull, 


18(j  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

he  will  break  over  ordinary  fences  and  serve  them.  Keep 
him  always  so  you  will  know  exactly  where  he  is. 

Do  not  send  a  good  bull  to  the  shambles  at  5  years  old. 
If  he  is  getting  good  heifer  calves,  his  lease  of  useful  life- 
cannot  be  too  long.  Keep  him  as  long  as  you  can  and  then 
dispose  of  him  to  some  one  who  needs  a  good  bull.  He 
should  be  useful  for  service  until  the  age  of  12  years,  at 
least,  if  well  cared  for  in  his  earlier  life. 

Keep  this  in  mind,  that  you  can  never  be  too  watchful 
of  the  dairy  bull.  No  matter  how  kind  you  are  to  him,  he 
will  take  advantage  of  you  when  you  least  expect  it.  It  is 
in  this  way  that  so  many  prominent  breeders  have  lost  their 
lives.  Have  a  strong  stick  with  a  snap  in  the  end  which 
you  can  snap  into  the  ring  in  his  nose.  This  will  make  it 
quite  safe  to  handle  him;  but  even  this  cannot  always  be- 
depended  upon  to  stop  him. 


LECTURE  XLVI. 


STABLING   SUITABLE    FOR    DAIRY   CATTLE. 

In  the  proper  care  and  management  of  the  dairy  cow, 
one  of  the  most  important  points  to  be  considered  is  suitable 
stabling.  Other  classes  of  stock  are  able  to  withstand  more 
or  less  exposure  to  cold,  but  the  dairy  cow  must  have  warm 
quarters.  She  is,  in  a  large  degree,  an  artificial  animal, 
more  delicate  than  the  beef  animal.  This  is  especially  true 
of  those  breeds  which  belong  to  the  so-called  special  purpose 
dairy  cattle;  such  as  the  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Holstein  and 
Ayrshire.  Any  exposure  to  cold  will  seriously  check  the  flow 
of  milk.  It  will  also  increase  the  cost  of  production  as  the 
feed  which  should  be  used  for  milk  production  will  have  to 
be  used  to  supply  heat  for  the  animal  body. 

In  beef  cattle  the  ration  is  of  a  fattening  nature,  which  is 
closely  associated  with  heat  production.  Such  feed  stuffs  as 
corn  and  barley  are  useful  for  this  purpose.  The  ration  of 
the  dairy  cow  is  of  a  more  nitrogenous  nature,  thus  not  so 
well  adapted  for  heat  production.  This  being  the  case  it  is 
very  important  to  supply  the  necessary  heat  by  artificial 
means  in  the  way  of  warm  stables.  Beef  cattle  will  do  nicely 
in  stables  with  a  temperature  ranging  from  40°  to  45°  F. 
Dairy  cattle  should  have  warmer  quarters;  from  50°  to  55°  or 
€0°  F.  is  about  right. 

The  dairy  cow  is  a  hard  worked  animal  and  should  do 
service  for  several  years.  Many  cows  are  profitable  at  fifteen 
years  of  age.  This  being  the  case  we  can  readily  see  the 
necessity  of  taking  every  precaution  possible  to  protect  the 
health  of  the  animals.  Since  milk  is  used  so  largely  as  a 
food  by  the  human  race,  it  is  very  important  that  the  animals 
which  produce  the  same  are  in  perfect  health.  This  calls 
for  plenty  of  sunshine  and  pure  air  in  our  dairy  stables.  The 
majority  of  our  dairy  cattle  barns  are  sadly  deficient  in  this 
respect.  Too  many  are  dark,  dirty  places  with  no  means  of 


188  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

ventilation.  Such  stables  are  a  source  of  contamination,  as. 
disease  of  some  kind  or  other  is  sure  to  break  out.  Other 
stables  are  too  small. 

The  stable  should  be  large  enough  so  that  there  will  be 
1000  cubic  feet  of  space  for  each  and  every  animal  housed 
in  the  same.  This  calls  for  wider  alleys  and  higher  walls 
than  are  generally  found.  The  walls  should  be  at  least  eight 
feet  high  and  are  much  better  if  they  are  ten.  There  should 
be  an  abundance  of  sunshine.  High  walls  with  plenty  of 
large  windows  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  light  and  sun- 
shine. This  is  a  point  which  must  not  be  over- 
looked. Sunshine  and  microbes  or  germs  (which  are 
the  cause  of  most  diseases)  are  not  found  in  the  same 
place.  A  few  minutes  exposure  to  sun  will  kill  a  great  many 
of  the  very  worst  disease  producing  germs.  This  being  the 
case  the  dairyman  should  take  advantage  of  the  same  and 
provide  ample  means  for  allowing  sunshine  in  his  stables. 

The  question  of  ventilation  is  one  which  is  sadly  under- 
estimated by  most  dairymen.  Plenty  of  pure  air  should  be 
supplied.  Each  and  every  stable  should  be  so  arranged  that 
there  will  be  means  of  supplying  fresh  air,  also  a  means  for 
the  escape  of  foul  or  impure  air.  In  many  good  barns  the 
fresh  air  is  supplied  by  means  of  a  sub-earth  duct.  This  is 
so  arranged  that  the  air  is  brought  underground  for  some 
distance,  thus  has  the  chill  removed  in  the  winter  months. 
In  the  summer  months  the  air  is  somewhat  cooler,  due  to  the 
same  process.  Ventilation  tubes  should  be  arranged  with 
openings  at  both  top  and  bottom  of  the  walls. 

The  walls  should  be  thoroughly  whitewashed  once  a  year. 
This  will  add  much  to  the  general  appearance  of  the  stables, 
also  to  the  health  of  the  animals.  Some  disinfectants  should 
be  added  to  the  whitewash  solution  before  it  is  put  on  the 
walls. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country  bank  barns  are  popular. 
This  is  a  barn  so  built  that  part  of  it  is  partially  under  ground 
in  a  side  hill.  It  affords  many  conveniences  from  a  feeding 
standpoint.  It  also  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  room  under 
one  roof,  which  is  no  small  item  in  these  days  of  expensive 
roofing  materials. 

The  objections  to  this  plan  of  a  barn  are  the  difficulty  of 
securing  proper  light  and  good  drainage.  Where  one  end  or 
one  side  or  an  end  and  side  of  the  stable  is  in  a  side  hill 


STABLING  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE.  189 

the  light  must  all  be  secured  from  one  side  and  end.  Thus 
it  is  difficult  to  furnish  ample  sunlight.  In  the  spring  of  the 
year  such  a  stable  is  often  very  difficult  to  drain  properly. 
Nothing  is  more  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  dairy  cow 
than  dampness.  The  basement  barn  is  another  kind  which  is 
popular  in  many  districts.  The  advantages  of  this  structure 
are  much  the  same  as  those  claimed  for  the  bank  barn, 
the  main  difference  being  that  the  bank  barn  is  built  partially 
underground  while  the  other  one  is  built  above  ground,  thus 
much  more  easily  lighted  and  drained. 

Concerning  the  interior  construction  of  the  dairy  barn, 
many  methods  of  tying  the  animals  are  used.  There  are 
many  advantages  and  disadvantages  claimed  for  each  system. 
Some  are  easy  on  the  cow  and  hard  on  the  man  (the  chain 
system  of  tying  around  the  neck) ;  others  are  easy  for  the 
man  and  not  so  comfortable  for  the  cow  (such  as  the 
stanchion  system).  The  Bidwell  stall,  which  fastens  the  cow 
in  place  by  means  of  a  chain  behind  the  animal,  is  easy  on 
both  cow  and  man,  but  not  so  convenient  at  milking  time. 
With  the  stanchion  system  it  is  much  easier  to  keep  the  cow 
clean,  which  in  the  eyes  of  many  men  is  a  very  important 
point. 

The  stalls  should  be  roomy  and  the  alleys  wide.  The 
gutters  behind  the  cow  should  be  about  eighteen  inches  wide 
with  from  six  to  eight  inches  drop  behind  the  cow  and  from 
two  to  four  inches  drop  from  the  alley  way. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  have  every  con- 
venience possible  arranged  for,  so  as  to  make  the  feeding  of 
the  animals  an  easy  task. 

Concerning  the  materials  used  in  the  floors,  various  kinds 
are  used  with  good  results.  Cement  is  easily  kept  clean,  but 
rather  hard  on  the  cows  and  inclined  to  be  slippery.  Brick 
laid  on  edge  is  durable  and  not  so  slippery  as  cement.  Plank 
is  easy  on  the  cow,  but  not  so  durable  as  the  other  kinds 
mentioned. 

In  recapitulation  we  would  say  that  the  stables  should 
be  well  lighted,  well  ventilated,  have  plenty  of  fresh  air, 
plenty  of  room,  convenient  for  both  man  and  beast  and  built 
in  such  a  way  and  of  such  material  as  to  warrant  durability. 


FEB  11  1904 


Series 


PART  1 


KENNEDY. 


Correspondence 

Agricultural 

College 


City,  lotva 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  SERIES. 

PART  I.        NO.  IV. 


LECTURES 


Feeding,  Care  and  Management 
of  Live  Stock 


WILLARD  J.  KENNEDY,  B.  S.  A. 


Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 
and  Vice  Director  of  Experiment 
Station.  Iowa  State  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 


Correspondence  Agricultural  College, 
SIOUX  CITY,  IOWA. 


All  Rights  Reserved. 


LIBRARY  Of  CONGKESS 
Two  Ooo.es  Received 

AUG    5    1904 
Ctoynght  Entry 


No. 


Copyright,   1904. 

by 

RURAL  TEXT  BOOK  COMPANY 
Assignee. 


V, 


1904. 

Rural  Text  Book  Company, 
Press. 


CONTENTS. 


Part  1.      No.   IV. 


CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT   OF    LIVE    STOCK. 


LECTURES. 

Pages. 

XLVII.     Feed,   Care  and  Management  of  the  Breed- 
ing Flock  during  the  Winter  Season 191-194 

XLVIII.     Feed,  Care  and  Management  of  the  Ewe  at 

Lambing  Time   195-198 

XLIX.     Feed,   Care  and   Management  of  the  Lamb 

from  Birth  until  ready  for  Market 199-200 

L.     Feed,  Care  and  Management  of  the  Ewe  at 

Weaning  and  Mating  T&ie, ..,,... 201-202 

LI.     Feed,   Care  arid"  Management  'df  /the    Ram 

during  the  Breeding- Reason.  ...'.. t 203-205 

LII.     Preparation  and  Fitting  of  Sheep^/or  Show 

Purposes  y. .  ; V ..,,,» '}-. . ./. 206-209 

LIII.     Preparation  and  Fitting  of  Sheep  for  Show 

Purposes — Continued    210-213 

LIV.     Raising  Hot-House   Lambs 214-218 

LV.     Fattening  Sheep  during  Winter  Months 219-221 

LVI.     Fattening  Sheep  during  Summer  Months.  .  .  .   222-225 

LVII.     Dipping  Sheep   226-229 

LVIII.     Forage   Crops  for   Sheep 230-232 

LIX.     An  Economical  Method  of  Starting  a  Flock 

of   Sheep    233-235 

LX.     Sheds  or  Houses  Suitable  for  Sheep 236-238 


LECTURE  XLVII. 


FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING 
FLOCK,   THE  WINTER   SEASON. 

Sheep  will  eat  and  do  well  on  almost  any  of  the  common 
grains  and  roughage  that  are  grown  on  the  average  farm. 
The  great  trouble,  however,  is  to  get  fodders  in  a  palatable 
condition  for  them.  If  the  flock  enters  winter  quarters  in 
good  flesh,  and  have  access  to  well  cured  fodders,  such  as 
clover  and  alfalfa  hay,  native  and  millet  hay  and  roots,  very 
little,  if  any,  grain  need  be  fed  until  near  lambing  time. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  flock  is  in  thin  condition  when 
they  enter  their  winter  quarters,  no  time  should  be  lost  in 
getting  them  in  better  condition  if  a  good  crop  of  lambs  is 
expected. 

There  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  rations  which  are  fed 
throughout  the  country.  For  instance,  the  shepherds  of  the 
east  think  the  roots  are  indispensable,  while  in  the  west 
many  shepherds  think  they  can  winter  their  flocks  fully  as 
well  without  roots.  No  doubt  too  many  roots  or  other  foods 
of  a  similar  nature  are  not  advisable;  however,  the  most 
practical  shepherds  find  that  a  few  roots  judiciously  fed  in 
connection  with  nutritious  foods,  such  as  bran,  oats  and  clover 
hay,  make  a  splendid  ration  for  ewes  in  lamb.  A  ration  com- 
posed of  equal  parts  oats,  bran  and  corn,  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  oil  meal,  will  give  surprisingly  good  results.  About 
one-half  pound  of  the  above  mixture  fed  daily  to  sheep  in 
conjunction  with  plenty  well  cured  fodder  will  be  sufficient 
to  keep  the  flock  in  a  thrifty  condition.  Clover  and  alfalfa 
hay  are  the  best  kinds  of  roughage;  however,  corn  fodder 
may  be  fed  in  the  corn  belt  section  of  the  country  very  eco- 
nomically and  satisfactorily.  When  corn  fodder  is  fed  it 
should  be  scattered  in  large  lots,  or  better  still,  in  sod  fields. 
Sheaf  oats  also  make  a  very  desirable  grain  and  fodder  ration, 
if  cut  and  cured  while  they  are  still  a  trifle  green.  When 
the  grain  is  fed  in  this  manner  the  weak  and  strong  or 


192  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

robust  and  greedy  individuals  get  about  equal  shares  of  the 
ration. 

Ewe  lambs  may  be  fed  a  ration  similar  to  that  of  the 
breeding  ewes,  but,  if  possible,  a  greater  variety  should  be 
given,  as  such  is  always  relished  by  young  things.  The  ram 
lambs  and  breeding  rams  may  be  fed  a  liberal  supply  of  grain 
in  conjunction  with  roughage,  preferably  of  a  nitrogenous 
rather  than  of  a  carbonaceous  nature.  Corn  should  form  a 
small  proportion  of  the  grain  ration,  if  other  grains,  such  as 
oats,  wheat  and  barley,  are  available,  or  can  be  obtained  as 
cheap.  Many  other  kinds  of  feed  might  be  added  to  the 
above,  and  several  variations  might  be  necessary  in  order  to 
comply  with  the  conditions  and  feeds  in  some  local  districts. 

Pure  water  should  be  supplied  at  all  times;  and  salt  should 
always  be  kept  where  the  sheep  have  access  to  it.  It  is  a 
great  mistake  to  salt  sheep  only  once  a  week,  or  at  long 
intervals,  because  they  are  apt  to  eat  too  much,  thus  often 
causing  heavy  drinking,  which  sometimes  brings  on  derange- 
ments of  digestive  system  or  scouring. 

Although  the  flock  has  access  to  the  above  variety  of  grain 
and  roughage,  yet  the  success  of  the  flock  will  depend  almost 
wholly  on  the  cajre  they  receive.  Without  the  care  of  an 
intelligent  shepherd  a  flock  will  return  rather  small  profits. 
When  the  flock  is  brought  into  their  winter  quarters  they 
should  be  divided  or  graded  into  several  groups.  That  is, 
the  breeding  ewes  should  be  separated  from  the  lambs,  rams 
and  sheep  which  are  intended  for  mutton,  etc.  The  weak 
or  old  thin  ones  should  also  be  separated  from  the  young 
robust  ones,  so  that  they  may  receive  better  care  and  food. 
The  rams  can  be  kept  in  small  lots  of  ample  size  to  allow 
them  plenty  of  exercise.  Never  allow  rams  to  run  with  the 
pregnant  ones. 

Regular  feeding  is  very  essential,  and  sheep  will  often  do 
better  on  a  poor  ration  fed  regularly  twice  a  day  than  a  good 
one  fed  in  a  haphazard  way.  Exercise  is  important,  especially 
in  care  of  breeding  ewes.  If  ewes  do  not  receive  sufficient 
exercise  during  pregnancy  the  offspring  will  often  come  forth 
weak  and  puny.  A  ewe  having  insufficient  exercise  will  usu- 
ally experience  more  or  less  trouble  in  lambing.  A  good  plan, 
and  one  which  many  of  the  flock  masters  use  at  present,  in 
order  that  their  flock  may  obtain  plenty  of  exercise,  is  that 
of  making  the  flock  walk  about  half  a  mile  daily  for  part  of 
their  roughage.  If  the  flock  is  unable  to  obtain  their  exercise 


CARE  OF  THE  BREEDING  FLOCK.  193 

in  such  a  way  as  above  mentioned,  they  should  be  carefully 
walked  a  short  distance  every  day.  To  keep  a  breeding 
ewe  penned  up  in  a  small  place  is  simply  nothing  short  of 
killing  her  with  kindness. 

Whatever  kind  of  quarters  be  provided  for  sheep,  they 
should  be  dry,  both  overhead  and  under  foot.  If  the  quarters 
are  dry  sheep  will  endure  considerable  cold  without  any  in- 
convenience. Breeding  ewes  require  about  ten  to  fifteen 
square  feet  in  a  building,  and  about  one  and  a  half  feet  at  a 
feeding  rack.  In  building  a  barn  one  should  also  provide 
ample  room  overhead  for  enough  hay  to  winter  the  flock. 
There  should  also  be  a  room  or  office  for  the  use  of  the 
shepherd,  especially  during  the  lambing  season.  Such  a 
room  should  be  equipped  so  that  the  shepherd  can  sleep  and 
cook  in  it  during  the  lambing  season  if  he  so  desires.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  keep  the  sheds  or  barn  where  sheep 
are  kept  well  bedded,  because  if  the  sheep  are  compelled  to 
walk  in  a  filthy,  wet  pen  or  muddy  lot  serious  results  are 
usually  experienced.  Foot  rot  is  often  brought  on  by  allowing 
sheep  to  run  in  filthy  places.  Just  how  often  one  should 
clean  out  a  sheep  barn  is  a  question  that  cannot  be  answered 
very  satisfactorily.  However,  it  is  conceded  by  the  most 
practical  flock  masters  and  shepherds  that  it  is  advisable  to 
always  clean  the  barn  thoroughly  before  lambing  time.  It 
is  also  advisable  to  hurry  or  rush  such  work,  because  many 
undesirable  and  disagreeable  odors  usually  accompany  the 
operation.  A  disinfectant  such  as  air-slacked  lime  should  be 
used  freely  in  the  barn  after  the  manure  has  been  removed. 

Ventilation  of  the  sheep  barn  should  receive  careful  con- 
sideration by  the  shepherd.  To  keep  the  sheep  in  as  pure 
an  atmosphere  as  possible  and  avoid  draughts  should  be  the 
aim  of  every  shepherd.  Draught  should  be  avoided,  especially 
when  young  lambs  are  in  the  barn,  because  such  often  brings 
on  rheumatism,  etc. 

Sheep  seldom  need  tagging  in  winter,  except  when  they 
have  been  receiving  a  too  generous  allowance  of  succulent 
food.  If  any  of  the  members  of  the  flock  become  filthy,  due 
to  scouring,  they  should  be  thrown  on  their  side  and  the  dirty 
tags  of  wool  removed  from  the  stem  with  a  shears  or  knife. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  trim  too  close  in  cold  weather. 

To  keep  the  flock  comfortable  and  quiet  is  an  all  important 
thing;  strangers  and  boisterous  men  and  boys  should  not  be 
allowed  to  go  plunging  about  among  sheep.  Sheep  should 


194  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

also  be  kept  separate  from  the  other  animals  on  the  farm. 
That  is,  sheep  should  not  be  allowed  or  obliged  to  run  in 
the  same  field  or  lot  as  horses,  cattle  or  swine,  because  under 
such  conditions  they  cannot  be  kept  quiet  and  comfortable. 
Dogging  should  be  avoided,  especially  among  ewes  that  are 
in  lamb. 

To  manage  the  flock  successfully  one  should  take  into  con- 
sideration the  barn  accommodations,  feed  and  help  he  has 
at  hand.  To  make  the  business  return  the  greatest  profit 
the  flock  should  be  sorted  or  the  culls  removed  or  disposed 
of  every  year.  The  lambs  should  come  at  a  time  best  suited 
to  the  barn  accommodations  and  feed  available.  For  in- 
stance, if  one  has  comfortable  barns  and  plenty  of  succulent 
food,  such  as  roots  or  ensilage,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the 
lambs  come  in  March,  because  they  can  be  given  sufficient 
attention  and  be  ready  to  go  ahead  when  turned  on  grass. 
They  are  also  stronger  and  abler  to  guard  off  parasites.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  barn  or  sheds  are  not  warm  enough 
for  young  weak  lambs,  and  no  succulent  food  available  for  the 
ewes,  lambs  had  better  not  come  until  there  is  abundance 
of  grass  in  the  fields. 

All  non-breeding  ewes  should  be  fattened  and  sent  to  mar- 
ket. Old  ewes  that  have  become  poor  feeders,  and  have  a 
tendency  to  keep  thin  and  delicate  on  good  treatment,  should 
also  be  sent  to  market.  In  order  to  keep  up  the  standard 
of  the  flock  and  to  improve  them — as  should  be  the  aim  of 
every  flockmaster— plenty  of  feed  of  the  right  nature,  com- 
fortable buildings,  intelligent  care,  and  all  other  accessories 
conducive  to  the  general  health  of  the  sheep  should  be  fur- 
nished. 


LECTURE  XLVIII. 


FEED,  CARE   AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   EWE  AT 
LAMBING   TIME. 

If  the  lamb  comes  at  a  season  when  plenty  of  grass  is 
available,  a  ewe  will  require  no  other  food.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  lamb  comes  in  the  fall  or  early  spring,  consid- 
erable nutritious  food  must  be  fed  the  ewe  immediately  be- 
fore and  after  lambing. 

As  lambing  time  approaches,  a  ewe  weighing  150  pounds 
requires  daily  about  one  pound  of  such  grain  as  bran  and 
oats,  three  or  four  pounds  of  succulent  food,  and  about  the 
same  weight  of  such  dry  fodder  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 
Other  fodders,  such  as  corn  fodder,  timothy  and  native  hay, 
oat  straw  and  pea  straw  will  suffice,  providing  plenty  of  suc- 
culent and  nitrogenous  elements  are  fed  in  conjunction  with 
them.  Some  succulent  food  should  be  fed  to  breeding  ewes 
at  all  times;  however,  it  is  very  easy  to  feed  them  too  much 
just  previous  to  lambing.  When  roots  or  ensilage  are  fed 
to  breeding  ewes  in  too  liberal  quantities,  weak,  large  lambs 
are  likely  to  be  the  outcome.  Just  before  lambing,  three 
pounds  of  any  succulent  food,  such  as  turnips,  mangel-wur- 
zels,  sugar  beets,  corn  ensilage,  will  be  found  sufficient.  A 
mixture  of  ten  pounds  corn  meal,  ten  pounds  bran,  two  pounds 
oil  meal  will  make  a  very  valuable  ration  for  ewes  after 
lambing. 

After  lambing,  unlimited  quantities  of  succulent  foods  may 
be  fed  in  order  that  the  flow  of  milk  may  be  stimulated.  How- 
ever, it  is  always  advisable  to  feed  rich,  stimulating  rations 
to  ewes  rather  light  the  first  few  days  after  lambing,  be- 
cause such  foods  have  often  a  tendency  to  scour  a  ewe  and 
her  offspring. 

A  short  time  before  lambing  season — and  this  can  be  ascer- 
tained from  the  record  kept  by  the  shepherd — the  most  for- 
ward ewes  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  flock. 
A  good  plan,  and  one  which  is  used  by  some  of  the  up-to-date 


196  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

flock  masters,  is  that  of  separating  the  ewes  into  four  differ- 
ent lots,  as  follows: 

1.  A  yard  of  ewes  heavy  in  lamb. 

2.  A  yard  of  ewes  with  single  lamb. 

3.  A  yard  of  ewes  with  twin  lambs. 

4.  A  yard  of  ewes  with  very  young  lambs. 

The  first  indications  of  lambing  are:  filling  of  the  udder, 
and  later,  restlessness,  deep  color  and  swollen  condition  of 
the  vulva,  droop  on  either  side  of  backbone,  lowering  of 
belly,  distracted  look,  and  a  clear  discharge  from  vulva. 
When  these  conditions  are  noticed,  the  ewe  should  be  brought 
into  an  enclosure  and  watched,  if  the  weather  is  severe,  and 
especially  if  it  is  disagreeable  and  raining.  A  cold  rain  is 
more  detrimental  to  a  new-born  lamb  than  a  lower  and  dryer 
temperature  nearly  at  zero.  If  a  ewe  has  been  well  managed 
previous  to  lambing,  very  little,  if  any,  trouble  will  be  ex- 
perienced in  bringing  forth  her  offspring;  but  if  she  has  been 
neglected,  of  course  "bad  luck"  is  apt  to  make  its  frequent 
visits.  It  is  highly  important  that  quietness  prevail  around 
the  sheep  barn  during  the  lambing  season.  One  of  the  worst 
things  that  can  happen  to  a  ewe  is  to  be  chased  by  a  dog. 
This  should  be  carefully  guarded  against  by  every  shepherd. 

Under  the  best  of  management  and  care  some  ewes  of 
the  flock  have  serious  trouble  in  giving  birth  to  their  progeny. 
Unnecessary  interference  with  a  ewe  in  labor  is  unwise. 
It  is  much  better  to  let  nature  take  its  course  until  it  is 
evident  that  help  is  really  needed.  The  birth  of  a  lamb  is 
always  easy  when  the  ewe  is  strong.  A  weak  ewe,  how- 
ever, has  always  more  trouble  in  giving  birth  to  her  offspring 
than  one  that  has  been  duly  prepared  for  the  occasion  by 
good  care  and  feeding.  The  absence  of  shelter  is  usually  a 
very  costly  instance  of  want  of  thrift  on  the  part  of  the 
flock  master.  A  lamb  is  a  small  thing;  but  it  is  generally 
the  income  from  these  small  things  that  determine  the  profits 
in  the  sheep  business.  It  is  very  essential  that  absence  of 
all  disturbances  by  other  sheep  be  avoided,  and  close  atten- 
tion be  given  the  ewe  by  the  shepherd  until  the  lamb  is  on 
its  feet  and  sucking. 

The  foetus,  if  in  the  normal  or  natural  position,  should  be 
found  with  the  head  resting  upon  the  two  forelegs,  and  in 
that  case  assistance  is  not  usually  required  at  parturition. 
Some  of  the  abnormal  presentations  or  positions  commonly 
met  with  are  as  follows:  One  foreleg  bent  back;  both  fore- 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  THE  EWE.  197 

legs  bent  back;  head  down  between  forelegs;  head  bent  along 
one  side;  and  sometimes  the  foetus  seems  determined  to  come 
stern  first,  with  legs  doubled  back.  In  any  of  the  above 
cases  of  presentation  the  ewe  needs  assistance  in  delivery. 
In  most  of  them  the  lamb  should  be  pushed  back  into  the 
womb  and  straightened  out  so  that  it  may  come  in  the  natural 
way.  In  case  it  is  determined  to  come  stern  first  with  legs 
doubled  up,  which  of  course  is  the  wrong  and  unnatural  way 
to  come,  it  should  be  pushed  back  and  hind  legs  straightened 
out,  and  the  lamb  then  removed,  hind  parts  first.  When  a 
lamb's  head  is  very  large,  sometimes  by  a  little  timely  help 
from  the  shepherd  the  ewe  may  be  spared  from  much  pain 
and  labor.  That  is,  a  few  minutes'  help  at  the  right  time 
from  the  shepherd  will  often  save  the  ewe  from  a  trying 
hour's  trouble.  For  instance,  if  the  lamb  has  a  large  head, 
the  shepherd  can  materially  assist  her  by  placing  his  hand 
on  the  skin  of  the  vulva  and  gently  pushing  it  over  the  head 
of  the  lamb.  After  the  head  is  free  the  forelegs  should  be 
straightened  out;  and  then  by  taking  both  feet  in  one  hand, 
the  lamb  may  be  pulled  in  a  circular  direction  toward  the 
ewe's  udder.  As  soon  as  the  lamb  is  born,  some  of  the  mucus 
about  its  legs  rubbed  on  the  ewe's  nose  will  greatly  arouse 
her  maternal  instincts,  and  often  save  or  avoid  much  trouble 
later  on.  If  the  ewe  is  weak  and  exhausted,  there  is  nothing 
better  for  her  than  a  drink  of  warm  oatmeal  gruel  three  or 
four  times  a  day.  This  can  be  given  from  a  long-necked 
bottle,  if  she  will  not  drink  it  otherwise.  If  the  lamb  is 
chilled  a  hot  bath  is  the  best  thing  for  it,  and  then  rub  it 
by  hand  and  wrap  it  in  a  flannel  cloth.  A  teaspoonful  of  hot 
gin  or  whisky  and  water,  a  little  sweetened,  is  the  common 
treatment  given  by  the  Highland  shepherd  for  the  restoration 
of  a  weak  or  chilled  lamb,  and  it  is  certainly  effective. 

If  a  ewe  refuses  to  care  for  her  lamb,  as  is  often  the  case, 
especially  with  twins,  she  should  be  put  into  a  small  pen, 
in  which  she  cannot  get  away  from  the  lamb.  There  are 
n^any  methods  used  by  the  shepherds  in  order  to  bring  about 
the  maternal  instinct  or  reconciliation  of  the  ewe.  Some 
cut  the  tail  off  the  lamb  and  rub  the  blood  on  the  ewe's  nose 
and  on  the  back  of  the  lamb.  Others  use  the  method  of 
milking  the  ewe  onto  the  back  of  the  lamb,  thus  bringing 
about  the  desired  result.  Where  the  ewe  has  a  dead  lamb, 
and  it  is  intended  that  she  act  as  a  foster-parent  to  some 
strange  lamb,  the  dead  lamb  should  be  skinned  while  it  is 


198  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

still  warm  and  its  skin  placed  on  the  one  which  it  is  desired 
she  should  adopt. 

Ewes  sometimes  retain  their  after-birth,  although  this  is 
not  as  common  among  sheep  as  it  is  among  the  larger  ani- 
mals. The  cause  of  this  accident  is  frequently  due  to  weak- 
ness of  the  ewe,  and  can  often  be  overcome  by  giving  the  ewe 
a  stimulant.  Gorget  or  inflammation  of  the  udder  seldom 
occurs  at  lambing  time,  but  yet  may  crop  out  by  reason  of 
exposure  to  cold,  especially  wet,  cold  spring  rains,  soon  after 
or  at  birth  of  lamb.  By  treating  an  inflamed  udder  with 
some  emollient,  such  as  warm  water  almost  hot,  with  a  little 
alcohol  in  it,  the  ewe  can  soon  be  relieved.  After  bathing 
the  udder  should  be  rubbed  gently  by  hand,  and  a  little  vase- 
line applied.  This  condition  is  usually  brought  on  after  lamb- 
ing by  feeding  too  much  rich  food,  such  as  oil  meal,  etc. 
Again,  ewes  may  become  costive,  which  causes  them  to  strain 
more  or  less.  A  dose  of  either  castor  or  linseed  oil  usually 
stops  a  ewe  from  straining;  and  in  case  of  a  deranged  sys- 
tem, due  to  inflammation  of  the  udder,  two  drams  of  Epsom 
salts  may  be  given,  and  the  ration  reduced  to  grass  or  hay 
for  a  short  time. 


LECTURE  XLIX. 


FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  LAMB  FROM 
BIRTH  UNTIL  READY  FOR  MARKET. 

No  class  of  animals  responds  more  readily  to  good  care 
and  treatment  than  the  young  lamb.  It  is  very  important 
that  they  be  given  the  very  best  of  care  during  the  first  few 
days,  as  they  are  then  very  tender.  When  a  week  or  ten 
days  old  they  will  withstand  a  considerable  amount  of  ex- 
posure. 

At  lambing  time  the  ewe  should  have  warm  quarters  if  the 
weather  is  cold  and  unfavorable.  If  the  lamb  is  weak  and 
chilled,  it  must  receive  special  care  and  stimulants  to  restore 
vigor.  One  of  the  very  best  methods  of  reviving  the  chilled 
lamb  is  to  immerse  it  in  hot  water,  then  rub  gently  so  as  to 
start  circulation  of  the  blood.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  and  at  the  same  time  simple  methods  of  accom- 
plishing the  desired  end.  Sometimes  whisky  is  given  in 
small  quantities  to  a  chilled  lamb  with  good  results.  Nourish- 
ment of  some  kind  should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible.  The 
mother's  milk  is  the  best,  as  the  first  milk  of  the  dam  or 
the  colostrum  is  necessary  to  regulate  the  digestive  system. 
If  the  lamb  is  not  strong  enough  to  suckle  of  its  own  ac- 
cord, the  mother  should  be  turned  on  her  side  and  some  of 
her  milk  given  to  the  lamb.  Generally  it  will  suckle  with- 
out any  further  aid.  It  may  be  necessary  to  handle  the 
mother  in  this  way  for  a  couple  of  days  or  until  the  lamb 
is  strong  enough  to  walk  around  and  obtain  the  necessary 
nourishment  itself.  The  mother's  milk  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary for  the  first  few  weeks,  except  in  some  instances  where 
a  poor  milker  is  trying  to  rear  two  lambs,  then  some  cow's 
milk  should  be  given. 

When  about  ten  days  or  two  weeks  old  the  tails  should  be 
docked  and  all  ram  lambs  not  intended  for  breeding  pur- 
poses should  be  castrated. 

The  docking  may  be  done  with  a  sharp  two-inch  flat  chisel. 


200  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

This  is  one  of  the  cleanest  and  most  effective  methods  that 
we  have  ever  practiced. 

Where  it  is  desirable  to  force  the  lambs  for  market,  they 
should  be  taught  to  eat  grain  at  an  early  age.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  lamb  creep  should  be  provided  which  may  be  made 
by  partitioning  off  a  small  corner,  leaving  an  entrance  large 
enough  for  the  lamb  but  too  small  for  the  mother  to  enter. 
In  this  should  be  small  feed  troughs  or  boxes  in  which  a 
little  cracked  corn  or  oat  meal,  which  may  be  obtained  by 
screening  the  hulls  out  of  ground  oats,  should  be  placed. 
This  will  be  eaten  readily  by  the  youngsters  and  will  aid 
very  much  in  their  development.  This  grain  feeding  can 
be  done  to  advantage  even  when  the  grass  is  good.  Lambs 
so  fed  will  always  thrive  much  better  than  those  not  fed 
any  grain. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year — about  ten  days  after  the  mothers 
have  been  shorn — the  lambs  should  be  dipped  to  free  them 
from  the  ticks  which  left  the  mothers  and  came  to  the  lambs. 
Any  of  the  manufactured  dips,  such  as  Zenoleum  and  Chloro- 
Napholeum  or  Creolin,  will  give  very  good  satisfaction. 

They  should  be  weaned  from  the  mothers  when  from  four 
and  a  half  to  five  months  old.  They  should  then  be  given 
the  run  of  a  good  pasture.  Where  rape  can  be  had,  it  makes 
a  most  valuable  adjunct  at  this  season  of  the  year.  Some 
grain  should  be  fed  in  addition.  The  lambs  should  be  divided 
into  two,  and  where  pure  bred  stock  are  kept  into  three  lots. 
All  those  intended  for  market  purposes  should  be  put  in  one 
lot,  the  ewe  lambs  intended  for  breeding  purposes  in  another, 
and  the  ram  lambs  in  a  third.  The  grain  rations  will  vary 
with  the  needs  of  the  animals.  Those  which  are  to  be  fat- 
tened should  receive  a  ration  composed  of  corn  with  a  small 
amount  of  either  bran  or  oats  in  addition.  Those  intended 
for  breeding  purposes  should  be  fed  a  ration  conducive  to 
growth,  such  as  oats  and  bran.  Some  oil  meal  and  wheat 
can  oftentimes  be  fed  to  good  advantage. 

The  market  lambs  should  be  fat  and  marketed  when  they 
will  average  about  eighty  pounds.  Heavier  lambs  are  dis- 
criminated against  on  all  of  our  leading  markets. 


LECTURE  L. 


FEED,   CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    EWE    AT 
WEANING   AND    MATING   TIME. 

There  is  no  more  important  subject  to  the  shepherd  than 
this,  for  upon  the  right  work  at  this  season  depends  the  next 
year's  crop  of  lambs.  He  who  raises  a  strong,  healthy  lot  of 
lambs,  with  a  high  percentage  of  twins  and  triplets,  will  be 
financially  ahead  of  the  man  whose  flock  yields  low  returns 
at  lambing  season. 

About  the  1st  of  September — for  Iowa  conditions — the  lambs 
and  ewes  should  be  separated  and  put  in  separate  fields, 
preferably  not  adjoining.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the  ewes 
will  need  no  special  attention  at  weaning  time,  but  if  pasture 
is  very  good  and  the  ewes  milking  freely,  it  is  best  to  turn 
them  on  scant  pasture  for  a  few  days  to  avoid  troubles 
arising  from  fever  due  to  the  sudden  diversion  of  a  large 
blood  stream  from  the  mammary  glands  to  the  body  circu- 
lation. When  the  lambs  have  been  taught  to  eat  grain  be- 
fore weaning,  and  when  pasturage  is  a  trifle  scant,  the  ewes 
will  usually  be  so  reduced  in  milk  flow  that  no  precautions 
are  necessary,  and  the  ewes  may  be  turned  at  once  on  good 
pasture  and  pushed  for  gains,  or,  as  old  shepherds  express  it, 
"flushed."  The  reason  of  this  is  that  it  is  an  established 
principle  of  breeding  that  females  will  breed  more  readily, 
and  will  be  surer  to  "catch,"  if  they  are  pushed  for  gains  at 
breeding  season;  and  there  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  per- 
centage of  lambs  is  considerably  increased  where  ewes  are 
so  handled. 

The  matter  of  feeding  to  produce  rapid,  vigorous  gains  is 
also  of  interest.  The  feed  should  be  succulent,  yet  strong. 
When  pasture  is  abundant  the  ewes  may  be  turned  on  this 
and  fed  some  shelled  corn  and  bran  in  proportions  of  about 
half  and  half.  If  pasture  is  limited,  a  field  of  rape,  or  rye 
and  oats,  should  be  provided,  and  there  is  no  better  feed  for 
the  ewes  than  a  field  of  rye  and  oats,  sown  at  the  rate  of  two 
bushels  rye  and  one  bushel  oats  per  acre — broadcast.  This, 


202  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

of  course,  will  need  to  be  sown  by  the  last  of  July;  it  will 
then  be  fit  for  grazing  by  the  10th  of  September,  and  will 
furnish  a  fresh  run  of  strong  succulent  pasture,  which  with 
a  small  ration  of  corn  and  bran  will  put  the  ewes  to  gaining 
rapidly  and  will  put  them  in  excellent  breeding  shape,  in 
which  they  will  be  far  more  likely  to  produce  twins  than 
they  otherwise  would,  and  the  percentage  of  ewes  that  fail 
to  catch  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  ewes  should  have  tags  of  wool  cut  away  before  the 
ram  is  turned  on  them;  and  a  record  should  be  kept  of  all 
ewes  bred  each  week.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  changing 
the  mark  on  the  ram  each  week,  so  that  the  ewes  bred  one 
week  will  be  marked  with  black  paint,  the  next  week  with 
red,  etc. ;  and  at  the  end  of  each  week  each  ewe  that  has 
been  bred  should  be  caught  and  her  tag  number  recorded. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  really  essential 
thing  is  to  have  a  fresh  run  of  pasture  on  which  to  start  the 
ewes  to  gaining  rapidly;  this,  with  the  fact  that  the  sudden 
diversion  of  blood  into  the  system  from  the  cessation  of 
secretions  in  the  mammary  glands,  will  very  quickly  bring 
them  into  season,  and  if  they  are  gaining  the  probabilities  of 
a  high  percentage  in  lamb  crop  will  be  greatly  increased. 


LECTURE  LI. 


FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  RAM  DURING 
THE  BREEDING  SEASON. 

The  ram  is  at  least  half  the  flock  and  often  more  because 
of  his  purer  breeding,  and  it  behooves  the  breeder  to  treat 
him  with  the  respect  his  value  justifies.  To  do  good  service 
in  the  breeding  season  he  must  be  in  good  shape  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  same,  and  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  re-emphasize 
the  necessity  of  this.  The  breed-ram  should  have  as  good 
quarters  during  the  winter  as  any  of  the  ewes;  should  be 
allowed  plenty  of  exercise  and  should  be  kept  in  a  strong, 
vigorous,  fleshy  condition  on  corn,  bran  and  oats  or  feeds 
of  a  similar  nature;  and  should  be  carried  through  the  sum- 
mer season  in  the  same  general  manner.  So  cared  for  he 
will  be  strong  and  vigorous  when  the  breeding  season  be- 
gins, will  be  "surer,"  and  much  more  active.  He  should  not, 
however,  be  so  fat  as  to  be  sluggish. 

When  the  breeding  season  is  fairly  on  and  the  ewes  have 
had  ten  days  or  two  weeks  of  "flushing,"  it  is  time  to  think 
of  breeding.  Two  general  policies  may  be  pursued.  If  the 
ram  is  a  valuable  one,  and  has  many  ewes  to  serve,  he  should 
not  be  allowed  to  run  with  the  flock,  but  should  be  kept  in 
during  the  day  in  a  comfortable  shed.  At  night,  when  the 
flock  is  brought  to  the  barns,  a  well  grown,  vigorous  ram  lamb 
should  have  a  band  of  canvas  belted  round  his  middle — so 
that  he  cannot  possibly  serve  a  ewe — and  should  be  turned 
out  in  the  ewe  flock.  He  will  quickly  hunt  out  the  ewes  that 
are  in  heat,  and  the  shepherd  should  be  at  hand  to  place 
them  in  a  separate  pen;  frequently  three  or  four  ewes  will 
be  found  to  be  in  heat.  After  the  lamb  has  had  time  to  hunt 
the  flock  well  over,  he  should  be  removed,  and  the  breeding 
ram  turned  out  with  the  ewes  that  are  in  heat.  He  should 
not  be  allowed  more  than  one  service  to  each  ewe  and  the 
services  should  be  at  least  thirty  minutes  apart,  especially 
if  several  ewes  are  to  be  bred.  A  mature  ram,  in  vigorous 
condition,  if  handled  in  the  manner  above  described,  should 


204  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

serve  eighty  ewes,  and  may  be  allowed  four  or  five  every 
evening,  and  the  same  again  in  the  morning — the  "teaser" 
should  be  turned  in  again  in  the  morning  to  sort  out  the 
ewes  which  are  in  heat.  A  young  ram — yearling  or  lamb — 
should  not  be  allowed  so  many  in  a  season  nor  in  a  single 
night.  A  yearling  should  be  able  to  care  for  forty-five  ewes 
and  a  lamb  about  twenty-five,  if  carefully  handled,  and  their 
energies  conserved.  A  ram  that  is  in  high  flesh  should  never 
be  turned  out  on  pasture  with  the  ewes  even  though  it  be 
a  small  flock — the  strain  of  repeated  services  and  the  excite- 
ment tend  to  impair  his  usefulness.  A  very  simple  and  ef- 
fective plan  of  marking  the  ewes  that  are  bred  is  to  smear 
the  breast  of  the  breeding  ram  with  some  paint;  he  will  then 
mark  each  ewe  he  serves;  and  by  changing  the  color  of  the 
paint  each  week  it  is  possible  for  the  flock  master  to  deter- 
mine just  what  week  certain  ewes  were  bred  in. 

The  other  policy,  which  saves  labor,  is  that  of  allowing 
the  rams  to  run  with  the  ewes  in  pasture.  Under  this  plan 
not  more  than  thirty-five  ewes  should  be  allotted  to  each 
ram,  and  the  same  plan  for  marking  the  ewes  should  be 
adopted  as  outlined  above. 

The  feeding  of  the  breeding  ram  during  the  breeding  season 
is  extremely  important,  for  led  away  by  the  excitement,  he 
will  rapidly  lose  flesh,  vigor  and  masculinity  unless  carefully 
fed.  He  should  receive  an  abundance  of  green  pasturage, 
with  plenty  of  room  for  exercise,  and  should  receive  an  abund- 
ance of  oats  and  bran,  mixed  in  proportions  of  two  parts 
oats  to  one  bran  by  weight;  besides  this  he  should  be  given 
a  little  oil  meal  now  and  then,  and  a  fair  allowance  of  tur- 
nips or  beets — but  never  mangels,  as  these  nearly  always 
cause  urinary  troubles,  which  may  result  in  the  death  of 
the  ram.  Why  this  should  be  no  one  knows,  but  such  is  the 
result  in  practice. 

The  ram  should  be  carefully  watched  during  the  breeding 
season  and  any  disorder  of  the  penis  should  be  promptly 
attended  to.  Inflammation  of  the  penis  may  be  simple  or 
cancerous.  In  the  first,  it  is  only  necessary  to  give  the  ram 
a  dose  of  Epsom  salts  (4  ounces),  and  to  inject  a  solution 
of  chlorate  of  potash  into  the  sheath,  which  should  first  have 
been  washed  with  some  warm  water  containing  some  dis- 
infectant as  Chloro-Naphtholeum,  Zenoleum,  or  Creolin.  If 
the  inflammation  be  cancerous,  it  will  be  necessary  to  turn 
the  ram  on  his  back,  the  penis  withdrawn,  and  the  diseased 


FEED  AND  CARE  OF  THE  RAM.  205 

spots  touched  with  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  This  will 
destroy  the  fungus  growths,  after  which  the  chlorate  of  potash 
treatment  will  effect  a  cure.  Care  should  always  be  taken 
to  shear  away  any  tags  of  wool  around  the  penis  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  breeding  season. 

In  conclusion,  the  essential  points  in  caring  for  a  ram  are: 
to  give  him  the  best  of  care  at  all  seasons  in  order  that  he 
may  be  strong  and  vigorous;  to  conserve  his  energies  by 
keeping  him  separate  from  the  ewes,  and  by  using  a  "teaser" 
to  hunt  out  the  ewes  in  heat;  to  feed  him  liberally  on  a  strong 
grain  ration,  with  plenty  of  pasture  and  room  for  exercise. 


LECTURE  LII. 


PREPARATION    AND    FITTING    OF    SHEEP    FOR 
SHOW   RING. 

In  preparing  or  fitting  sheep  for  show  the  thing  of  greatest 
importance  is  that  suitable  subjects  be  selected  for  the  shep- 
herd to  fit.  In  order  to  make  the  best  selection  the  breeder 
or  flock  master  must  be  a  competent  judge.  If  a  beginner 
is  desirous  of  exhibiting  and  is  somewhat  in  doubt  as  to  what 
constitutes  a  good  individual,  he  should  not  hesitate  in  pro- 
curing the  ability  or  ideas  of  an  experienced  flock  master. 
It  matters  little  whether  a  breeder  be  a  beginner  or  one  who 
has  been  several  years  in  the  business;  in  both  cases  the 
services  of  an  experienced  shepherd  should  be  secured.  Al- 
ways secure  the  very  best  service  your  business  will  support. 
It  is  necessary  for  every  breeder  to  remember  that  he  might 
as  well  try  to  take  prizes  without  sheep  as  without  the 
service  of  a  good  shepherd. 

Much  of  the  success  of  the  breeder  and  shepherd  in  the 
show  ring  depends  on  their  judgment,  not  only  at  the  time 
of  drafting  to  fit,  but  also  in  drafting  the  finished  product 
for  the  arena.  In  selecting  purebreds  for  show  yard  purposes 
there  are  several  points  worthy  of  consideration,  viz.:  con- 
stitution, form,  and  quality  of  fleece,  skin  and  flesh.  It  is 
of  great  importance  that  an  animal  have  constitution,  because 
on  this  essential  point  much  depends.  Coarseness  in  a  ewe 
or  ram  should  not  be  confounded  with  constitution,  because 
many  large,  coarse  individuals  are  often  weak  constitution- 
ally. Always  avoid  individuals  that  are  flat  ribbed  or  narrow 
and  shallow  in  the  chest,  because  such  animals  possess  in- 
sufficient room  for  a  strong,  healthy  pair  of  lungs.  As  a  rule. 
a  sheep  low  set,  well  sprung  in  the  ribs  and  deep  and  wide 
in  chest  possesses  plenty  constitution. 

At  present  fashion  asserts  itself  more  or  less  in  sheep 
breeding,  and  in  view  of  this  one  must  become  thoroughly 
conversant  or  acquainted  with  the  qualities  that  merit,  in 
the  breed  he  is  handling.  In  these  days  the  right  type  must 


FITTING  SHEEP  FOR  SHOW.  207 

be  in  evidence  before  one  can  win.  The  principal  points  to 
be  looked  for  in  the  form  of  a  ram  are:  a  thick,  short  neck; 
a  wide,  deep  body;  short  legs;  straight,  broad  back;  thick, 
fleshy  loin;  and  a  well  muscled  leg  of  mutton.  The  same 
general  form  will  suffice  for  ewes;  however,  a  feminine  ap- 
pearance must  also  be  in  evidence,  as  indicated,  especially 
by  a  refined  head  and  rather  long  and  thinner  neck  than  is 
usually  seen  in  a  ram.  Just  what  constitutes  a  good  leg  of 
mutton  is  something  which  many  fail  to  grasp.  Although  a 
sheep  is  not  split  up  behind,  this  does  not  indicate  that  the 
animal  has  a  perfect  leg  of  mutton.  A  well  formed  twist 
or  leg  of  mutton  should  not  only  be  filled  inside,  but  also  out- 
side, so  that  it  will  appear  round  and  plump  from  every 
aspect.  A  sheep  with  well  muscled  legs  will  not  only  be 
better  for  the  butcher's  purpose,  but  will  also  be  less  liable 
to  break  down  in  the  pasterns,  something  which  is  especially 
worthy  of  attention  in  breeding  rams.  Points  that  generally 
receive  too  little  attention  are  the  shoulders  and  spring  of 
fore  ribs.  Too  often  one  finds  animals  in  the  show  ring  that 
are  poor  in  the  crops  and  cut  up  in  the  flank.  Animals 
deficient  in  the  last  mentioned  points  are  usually  poor  doers, 
thus  should  never  be  selected  with  the  belief  that  they  will 
improve  faster  in  the  deficient  point  than  in  those  that  are 
more  nearly  perfect. 

The  fleece  should  always  be  carefully  examined,  and  if 
any  black  spots  be  found  in  the  wool  on  the  body  of  the 
animal  it  should  be  rejected.  A  short,  dense  fleece  is  usually 
more  preferable  in  the  Down  breeds  than  a  long,  coarse,  open 
one. 

The  show  skin,  and  in  fact  the  skin  of  all  sheep  in  a 
healthy  condition,  should  be  of  a  rich,  brilliant,  pink  color. 
A  pale  colored  skin  is  generally  associated  with  a  delicate 
constitution,  disease,  and  animals  that  are  either  in  a  de- 
pleted or  overdone  condition;  thus  one  should  pay  attention 
to  this  point,  although  it  seems  of  minor  importance  while 
selecting. 

The  quality  of  the  flesh  an  animal  possesses  is  also  worthy 
of  close  attention,  especially  in  selecting  sheep  over  a  year 
old.  If  a  sheep  is  well  muscled  or  fleshed  over  all  parts 
with  fairly  firm  flesh,  it  will  usually  take  kindly  to  feed  and 
make  satisfactory  gains.  Never  buy  animals  that  have  been 
already  fitted  and  are  stale  in  their  flesh,  because  they  can- 
not, as  a  rule,  be  fitted  again  satisfactorily.  It  is  always 


208  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

advisable  to  use  young  animals  each  season;  however,  an 
animal  of  outstanding  merit  may  occasionally  be  fitted  several 
times.  One  should  always  select  more  than  he  intends  to 
show,  because  under  the  best  of  management  and  care  cer- 
tain individuals  will  not  take  kindly  to  feed  or,  in  fact,  do 
any  good.  Although  the  best  of  selections  have  been  made, 
such  only  serves  as  a  sort  of  index  to  the  success  of  the 
animals  in  the  show  ring.  Selecting  and  feeding  go  hand  in 
hand,  thus  failure  in  either  brings  disaster  to  the  whole  busi- 
ness or  operation. 

Successful  feeding  of  show  animals  is  an  art  of  which 
very  few  can  boast.  It  is  not  a  difficult  thing  to  fatten  a 
sheep;  however,  it  is  usually  difficult  to  be  able  to  place  an 
exhibit  in  the  arena  ripe  enough  and  just  in  the  right  bloom. 
The  majority  who  vie  in  the  arena  for  honors  too  often 
fall  into  the  ranks  of  those  that  underfeed  or  overfeed  their 
animals.  The  mothers  of  lambs  intended  for  show  should 
receive  attention,  especially  the  first  few  days  after  parturi- 
tion. Too  much  grain  should  not  be  fed  to  the  ewe  until  the 
lamb  is  quite  strong.  Equal  parts  by  weight  of  oats  and  bran 
and  with  a  small  quantity  of  oil  cake  will  make  a  good  ration 
for  a  milking  ewe.  About  one  pound  of  this  mixture  fed 
daily  in  conjunction  with  good  clover  hay  and  abundance  of 
roots  will  be  sufficient.  When  the  lambs  get  large  enough 
to  eat  they  should  have  access  to  grain  and  hay.  The  grain 
ration  may  consist  of  oats  and  bran  at  first,  and  as  the  lambs 
become  older  a  little  oil  meal  may  be  added.  In  pushing 
lambs  it  is  often  advisable  to  feed  them  cow's  milk  from  a 
bottle  in  order  to  enhance  their  growth.  When  such  methods 
are  employed  the  cow's  milk  should  be  given  only  in  small 
quantities  at  first  and  while  the  lamb  is  still  young  so  that 
there  will  be  no  danger  of  deranging  the  creature's  delicate 
digestive  system. 

When  lambs  are  weaned  a  good  plan  to  follow  is  that  of 
feeding  a  small  grain  ration  in  the  morning,  after  which  rape 
or  some  other  succulent  food  may  be  given.  During  the  day, 
or,  in  fact,  all  the  time,  they  should  have  access  to  well 
cured  clover  hay.  About  five  or  six  in  the  evening  grain  can 
be  fed  again;  and  they  should  be  allowed  to  run  in  a  rape 
pasture  in  the  cool  of  the  evening.  In  order  to  cultivate 
and  keep  a  lamb's  appetite  keen,  it  is  necessary  to  clean  the 
trough  and  rack  after  each  meal.  Never  allow  feed  to  become 
stale  in  the  feed  boxes  or  racks. 


FITTING  SHEEP  FOR  SHOW.  209 

Regularity  in  feeding  should  always  be  adhered  to,  so  that 
the  animal  will  not  have  to  overtax  its  digestive  system  at 
any  one  time.  Show  lambs  should  be  pushed  from  birth 
until  they  are  placed  in  show  ring.  While  grain  is  an  indis- 
pensable adjunct  for  show  sheep,  however,  one  is  safe  in 
saying  that  more  sheep  are  ruined  every  year  and  more  fail 
as  fitters  by  overfeeding  of  grain  than  from  any  other  cause. 
Breeding  sheep,  especially  ewes,  should  be  fitted  as  much 
as  possible  on  juicy,  succulent  food.  Do  not  feed  too  much 
corn  or  food  of  a  carbonaceous  nature,  or  you  will  be  liable 
to  produce  blubber,  which  is  very  undesirable.  Always  try 
and  have  some  rape,  cabbage,  kale  or  turnips  to  feed,  be- 
cause such  feed  not  only  tends  to  keep  animals  healthy,  but 
also  produces  the  bloom  that  is  so  desirable  in  the  show  ring. 


LECTURE  LIII. 


PREPARATION    AND    FITTING    OF    SHEEP    FOR 
SHOW  RING— (Continued). 

In  preparing  sheep  for  exhibiting  exercise  should  not  be 
neglected,  because  the  health,  bloom  and  nature  of  the  flesh 
the  animal  carries  largely  depends  on  this  factor.  They 
should  be  allowed  to  run  in  a  yard  once  or  twice  every  day, 
preferably  in  the  morning  and  evening.  In  addition  to  run- 
ning in  a  yard  they  should  be  taught  to  lead  while  young. 
A  halter  made  of  light  medium  sized  rope  will  suffice.  While 
breaking  to  lead,  patience,  gentleness  and  regularity  should 
be  the  watchword  of  the  shepherd. 

The  feet  of  sheep  which  are  being  fed  heavily  always  need 
more  or  less  attention.  The  shepherd  should  make  a  prac- 
tice of  examining  the  feet  of  his  show  animals  at  regular 
intervals,  and  if  trimming  is  necessary  it  should  be  done  with- 
out the  slightest  delay.  In  trimming  always  use  a  strong, 
sharp  knife  and  pare  the  feet  so  that  the  sheep  can  stand 
firm  and  level  on  them.  Trimming  feet  is  a  simple  operation, 
but  when  neglected  the  feet  often  become  foul.  A  foul  foot 
can  usually  be  cured  if  it  is  taken  in  time  with  a  little  blue- 
stone  (blue  vitriol) ;  but  if  left  to  run  its  course  or  neglected 
it  brings  on  foot-rot,  a  disease  which  invariably  bars  its  host 
from  public  appearance. 

Some  ewes  when  they  become  very  fat  are  apt  to  scald 
themselves  with  their  urine.  Unless  ewes  troubled  in  this 
way  are  attended  to  immediately  after  the  first  indications 
are  noticed  they  will  become  unsightly  specimens  wholly 
unfit  for  show  yard  purposes.  This  trouble  can  generally  be 
overcome  by  washing  out  the  foul  parts  and  rubbing  or  treat- 
ing them  with  vaseline  or  lard. 

According  to  the  rules  of  most  shows  sheep  cannot  be  shorn 
before  the  1st  of  April.  Just  how  close  shepherds  adhere  to 
these  rules  is  a  question  that  cannot  be  very  satisfactorily 
answered;  however,  it  is  a  fact  that  many  of  the  winners  in 
evidence  at  our  shows  every  year  seem  to  possess  in  a  marked 


FITTING  SHEEP  FOR  SHOW.  211 

degree  the  ability  to  produce  wool.  It  is  out  of  the  question 
to  think  of  making  a  shepherd  shear  his  show  sheep  close. 
The  method  chieHy  practiced  by  shepherds  is  that  of  stubble 
shearing.  Stubble  shearing  is  simply  nothing  short  of  fraud 
and  dishonesty.  It  consists  of  taking  a  shears  and  shearing 
the  back  so  that  it  appears  level  and  at  the  same  time  leav- 
ing a  good,  long  staple  on  the  animal.  The  sides  and  belly 
are  slightly  trimmed.  The  sheep  should  always  be  washed 
immediately  after  they  are  shorn  and  trimmed  while  the 
fleece  is  still  moist.  Although  the  fleece  of  the  sheep  at  this 
time  is  a  trifle  unsightly,  yet  with  several  careful  trimmings 
during  the  summer  a  perfect  and  pleasing  form  is  obtained 
by  the  time  the  show  season  opens.  The  long  wooled  sheep 
should  not  be  trimmed,  but  rather  left  in  the  natural  con- 
dition. In  case  of  the  middle  wools  or  Downs  trimming  is 
essential.  The  simplest  manner  to  perform  this  operation 
is  to  block  out  the  sheep  first;  then  take  a  pail  of  water,  a 
brush  and  curry-comb  and  thoroughly  dampen  the  fleece. 
Then  with  a  keen  cutting  pair  of  shears  at  hand  the  straight 
lines,  graceful  curves  and  fancy  touches  of  the  shepherd  can 
be  produced.  It  is  a  simple  process,  but  must  be  performed 
on  every  subject  several  times  in  order  to  get  an  animal  in 
finished  condition  for  the  show  ring. 

Washing  of  show  sheep  is  most  commonly  practiced  among 
the  long  wooled  breeds.  Like  many  other  operations  in  the 
sheep  husbandry  it  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
When  properly  done  washing  is  of  great  benefit  to  the  show 
sheep  because  it  cleans  the  skin  and  allows  the  pores  to 
work  freely,  thus  stimulating  the  flow  of  natural  oil  and 
growth  of  wool.  Sheep  should  not  be  subjected  to  the  wash- 
ing operation  until  the  weather  is  mild.  Cold  water  with  the 
chill  off,  or,  better  still,  warm  water,  should  be  used,  and  a 
good  quality  of  soap,  preferably  castile,  should  not  be  for- 
gotten. 

Whether  one  washes  in  a  vat  or  any  other  kind  of  vessel, 
the  essential  thing  in  the  operation  is  to  remove  every  trace 
of  soap  from  the  skin  and  fleece,  because  if  the  slightest 
trace  is  left  it  is  not  only  injurious  to  the  fleece  but  also 
to  the  skin. 

Dipping  is  often  practiced,  but  as  a  rule  such  precautions 
should  only  be  resorted  to  in  order  to  guard  off  disease.  It 
is  not  expedient  to  dip  show  sheep  for  ticks  except  they  are 
badly  infested.  Whatever  the  sheep  are  dipped  for  they 


212  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

should  not  be  subjected  to  it  later  than  six  or  seven  weeks 
before  the  show  season  opens,  because  it  matters  little  how 
the  operation  is  performed  it  injures  the  fleece  more  or  less, 
thus  detracting  from  its  beauty. 

Coloring  of  the  fleece  is  advocated  by  some  very  prominent 
authorities,  while  other  up-to-date  flock  masters  condemn  it. 
Olive  oil,  yellow  ocher  and  burned  amber  make  a  suitable 
mixture  to  use,  but  unless  the  shepherd  is  an  expert  at  color- 
ing and  can  experiment  on  one  of  the  common  members  of 
the  flock,  it  is  advisable  to  dispense  with  the  coloring  feature. 
It  is  a  fact  that  some  sheep  in  the  show  ring  are  sometimes 
daubed  with  a  greasy  mixture  until  they  are  nothing  short 
of  filthy. 

Show  sheep  should  be  blanketed  so  that  the  fleece  may  be 
kept  clean,  compact  and  smooth.  Blanketing  also  serves  for 
other  purposes,  such  as  keeping  off  flies  and  keeping  the 
sheep  warm.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  the  blankets  on  the 
sheep  at  the  show  until  they  are  passed  upon,  so  that  visitors 
will  not  destroy  the  fleeces.  Blankets  may  be  made  of  various 
kinds  of  materials,  such  as  duck  and  burlap.  Duck  makes 
the  most  serviceable  blankets  for  show  purposes;  however, 
burlap  or  even  bran  sacks  will  suffice  for  home  use. 

During  the  summer  or  considerable  time  before  the  show 
season  starts,  every  flock  master  should  make  application  for 
catalogues  and  entry  blanks  of  the  shows  at  which  he  in- 
tends to  exhibit.  In  making  entries  care  should  be  exercised 
so  that  mistakes  and  confusion  may  be  avoided  the  judging 
day.  When  the  time  to  start  for  the  show  arrives  it  is  ex- 
pedient to  ship  plenty  of  the  same  rations  as  the  sheep  have 
been  accustomed  to,  because  usually  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 
well  cured  clover  hay,  turnips  and  cabbage  at  reasonable 
price,  if  at  all.  In  addition  to  feed  one  should  equip  himself 
with  a  trocar,  blue  vitriol,  castor  oil,  shears,  blankets  and 
bedding  for  his  own  use.  If  the  exhibit  is  small  and  you 
are  the  only  exhibitor  from  your  locality,  it  will  not  be  ad- 
visable to  hire  a  whole  car,  but  instead  it  will  be  much 
cheaper  to  ship  by  weight  or  rather  by  the  hundredweight. 

After  arriving  at  the  exhibition  grounds  the  sheep  will  often 
be  very  tired,  especially  if  the  journey  has  been  a  long  one. 
If  such  is  the  case  one  should  not  worry  though  the  animals 
refuse  to  eat  or  stand  up.  It  is  better  to  allow  them  to  re- 
main in  the  pens  undisturbed  than  to  entice  them  to  eat 
while  they  are  tired  or  exhausted.  In  order  to  avoid  tiring 


FITTING  SHEEP  FOR  SHOW.  2J3 

the  animals  too  much  it  is  often  advisable  to  make  arrange- 
ments to  have  them  hauled  from  the  station  to  the  fair 
grounds.  This  is  especially  true  if  you  wish  to  move  them 
from  the  cars  to  the  ground  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  How- 
ever, they  may  be  moved  conveniently  a  considerable  distance 
on  foot  during  the  cool  of  the  evening. 

While  the  sheep  are  on  the  show  circuit  they  should  be 
regularly  exercised  morning  and  evening  if  the  health  of  the 
animals  is  expected  to  be  kept  at  its  best. 

When  the  judging  day  arrives  the  shepherd  should  have 
his  sheep  in  good  form  and  have  them  so  educated  that  they 
will  stand  out  bold  and  free.  Do  not  allow  a  sheep  to  stand, 
as  it  were,  in  a  heap,  but  rather  aim  to  have  them  stand 
perfectly  level  on  level  ground.  Never  allow  a  sheep  to 
stand  with  its  head  downhill,  but  rather  reverse  the  position 
so  that  its  front  feet  will  be  a  trifle  the  highest. 

The  above  methods  will  suffice  for  fitting  of  wethers;  how- 
ever, one  may  quite  safely  feed  heavier  grain  rations  to 
wethers  than  to  rams  or  ewes. 

If  the  show  animals  are  retained  in  the  flock  for  breeding 
purposes  they  should  be  reduced  in  fat  immediately  after 
the  show  season  is  past.  In  reducing  sheep  to  breeding  con- 
dition care  should  be  taken  to  reduce  the  fat  by  degrees  or 
very  slowly,  so  that  the  constitution  of  the  animal  will  not 
be  impaired. 


LECTURE   LIV. 


THE   HOT-HOUSE   LAMB. 

The  term  "hot-house  lamb"  often  leads  to  a  misunder- 
standing, for  the  uninformed  are  liable  to  be  led  to  believe 
that  the  successful  raising  of  these  lambs  requires  extremely 
artificial  conditions.  This  is  not  true.  The  hot-house  lamb 
is  simply  a  lamb  born  in  November  or  December,  and  fattened 
and  sold  during  the  first  ten  weeks  of  the  year,  at  which  time 
there  is  a  strong  fancy  demand  for  choice  fat  lambs  ranging 
from  45  pounds  to  60  pounds  in  weight.  They  will  bring 
prices  ranging  from  $8  to  $10  each,  and  the  demand  is  always 
greater  than  the  supply.  The  great  cities  furnish  the  mar- 
ket, and  selling  must  be  done  through  commission  merchants, 
unless  the  producer  has  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  some 
of  the  large  consumers.  Commission  charges  are  5  per  cent. 
The  lambs  are  marketed,  hog  dressed,  and  are  shipped  by 
express  or  refrigerator  freight. 

The  advantages  of  raising  "hot-house"  lambs  are: 

1.  Practical  immunity  from  parasites,  which  so  seriously 
hamper  the  sheep  industry  in  the  United  States.     The  para- 
sites are  far  more  fatal  in  lambs  than  in  older  sheep;    but 
inasmuch  as  they  almost  invariably  gain  access  to  the  lambs 
when  the  latter  are  feeding  on  pasture,  this  trouble  is  done 
away  with,  and  losses  from  this  source  are  nil. 

2.  Constant  occupation  at  a  profitable  task  for  the  farmer 
at  an  otherwise  dull  season.    The  work  comes  from  November 
to  March  when  regular  farm  work  is  slack. 

3.  A  high  price  and  maximum  profits.    Lambs  only  eight  or 
ten  weeks   old   bring  as   much   money   as    those   five  or   six 
months  old  ordinarily  do.    Choice  lambs  will  realize  the  owner 
$8  to  $10  per  head,  and  as  he  has  only  had  the  care  and  feed- 
ing of  them  during  their  babyhood  days — when  they  return 
more  pounds  gain  according  to  pounds  of  food  eaten  than  any 
other  animals  known — their  cost,  so  far  as  feed  is  concerned, 
is  at  a  minimum. 

The  raising  of  "hot-house"  lambs,  however,  is  not  a  task 


THE  HOT-HOUSE  LAMB.  215 

for  the  careless  and  slovenly  farmer.  Certain  peculiar  con- 
ditions must  be  met,  and  due  attention  must  be  paid  to  de- 
tails which  make  for  profit  or  loss. 

The  first  requisite  is  that  the  lambs  shall  come  at  the  right 
season — in  November  or  December.  October  lambs  are  some- 
what too  early  and  must  be  marketed  about  the  Christmas 
holidays,  for  they  will  be  too  heavy  to  sell  as  fancy  lambs  if 
they  are  carried  on  till  the  middle  of  January.  The  really 
strong  demand  comes  from  the  first  of  January  till  the  middle 
of  March.  In  order  to  have  the  lambs  come  in  November 
or  December,  the  ewes  must  be  bred  in  June  or  July — time  of 
pregnancy  ranges  from  151  to  154  days.  Ordinary  breeds  of 
sheep  will  not  breed  at  this  season  of  the  year,  and  the  only 
sheep  that  can  be  depended  upon  to  produce  lambs  in  No- 
vember or  December  are  the  Dorsets  or  their  grades.  The 
Dorset-Merino  grade  has  proved  eminently  satisfactory,  and 
the  Dorset-Shropshire  grade  ewe  is  also  an  excellent  ewe  for 
this  purpose,  though  scarcely  so  sure  to  breed  at  the  right 
season  as  the  former.  The  grade  ewes  are  to  be  preferred 
to  the  purebreds  for  raising  such  lambs,  as  their  cost  is  less 
and  they  are  usually  more  vigorous  mothers.  The  rams, 
however,  should  be  purebred,  as  a  grade  sire  lacks  prepotency 
and  consequently  fails  to  sire  lambs  of  uniform  merit. 

The  ewes  should  be  sheared  early,  and  kept  on  light  feed 
from  March  until  the  latter  part  of  May.  They  should  be 
kept  in  only  medium  condition.  In  May  they  will,  of  course, 
be  turned  on  pasture  and  should  be  kept  gaining  at  a  fair 
rate  until  they  are  bred.  If  pasture  is  not  good  they  should 
receive  grain  in  addition.  The  endeavor  is  to  have  the  ewes 
at  breeding  time  in  good,  vigorous  condition — not  fat,  but 
gaining  in  flesh.  The  rams  should  be  in  similar  condition. 
This  gain  in  condition  is  known  to  shepherds  as  "flushing," 
and  is  resorted  to  because  long  experience  has  shown  that 
it  increases  the  tendency  of  the  animals  to  come  in  heat,  and 
also  renders  conception  much  more  certain. 

In  breeding  the  preferable  plan  is  to  keep  the  ram  with 
the  ewes  only  at  night;  but  this  necessitates  considerable 
extra  work,  and  breeders  often  find  it  more  economical  to 
turn  two  rams  with  the  flock,  letting  them  remain  all  the 
time. 

After  the  ewes  have  all  taken  the  ram,  he  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  flock.  The  ewes  should  have  an  abundance 
of  good  pasture,  pure  water  from  troughs  or  tanks,  and  shade. 


216  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

These  are  the  essentials;  given  these,  the  flock  will  come 
through  the  summer  in  fine  shape,  and  the  lambs  will  come 
strong  and  hearty. 

The  barn  or  shed  in  which  the  ewes  and  their  little  ones 
are  to  be  cared  for  should  be  wind-proof,  reasonably  warm, 
and  should  have  considerable  glass  on  the  south  side.  Good 
ventilation  throughout  the  barn  and  separate  quarters  for 
the  lambs  should  be  provided  for.  A  creep  will  prevent  the 
ewes  from  passing  into  the  lambs'  portion  of  the  barn.  Suffi- 
cient bedding  to  keep  the  sheep  clean  should  be  furnished, 
but  an  excess  is  objectionable.  Gypsum  will  keep  down  the 
ammonia  from  the  fermenting  manure.  Water  and  salt  should 
be  furnished  in  the  barn,  and  the  ewes  and  lambs  need  not 
be  allowed  outdoors  from  the  time  they  are  put  in  until  the 
lambs  are  all  slaughtered  and  sold. 

For  feed  there  is  nothing  better  for  the  ewes  than  good 
bright  clover  or  alfalfa,  with  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  and  if 
prices  permit,  some  oil  meal  or  gluten  feed.  Cost  is  the  de- 
termining factor  in  deciding  on  these  supplemental  foods, 
though  due  care  must  always  be  taken  to  secure  only  those 
protein  carrying  foods  that  are  palatable,  for  sheep  are  the 
most  particular  about  their  food  of  all  domestic  animals. 
Carrots  or  Swede  turnips  are  also  very  valuable  as  supple- 
mentary food  for  the  ewes;  but  bright,  fresh  silage  will 
answer  practically  the  same  purpose,  and  is  much  cheaper. 
The  size  and  general  thrift  of  the  ewes  should  be  the  guide 
in  feeding,  and  enough  grain  should  be  given  to  keep  the 
ewes  in  a  thrifty  condition  so  that  they  will  give  an  abund- 
ance of  milk  for  the  little  fellows. 

The  lambs  should  be  fed  grain  in  troughs  of  their  own. 
There  is  nothing  better  than  corn  meal  and  wheat  bran, 
mixed  in  proportions  of  about  75  pounds  corn  and  25  pounds 
bran.  This  grain  mixture  with  plenty  of  bright  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  will  make  the  lambs  grow  at  a  surprising  rate; 
and  if  silage  is  available  they  should  also  receive  some  of 
this  once  a  day,  with  some  bran  or  gluten  feed  sprinkled 
over  it.  In  feeding  the  lambs,  they  should  be  given  all  the 
grain  they  will  clean  up  three  times  a  day.  and  be  supplied 
with  bounteous  hand.  The  troughs  for  both  ewes  and  lambs 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  out  before  each  feed. 

Joseph  E.  Wing,  in  the  "Winter  Lamb,"  warns  feeders  to 
beware  of  silage  when  taken  from  near  the  bottom  of  silo, 
and  states  that  the  acid  present  in  such  silage  is  like  rank 


THE  HOT-HOUSE  LAMB.  217 

poison  to  young  lambs.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain 
that  good  silage  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  feeds  that  can 
be  secured  for  lambs  or  ewes. 

If  proper  care  in  feeding  is  taken  the  lambs  should  weigh 
from  45  to  60  pounds  in  from  eight  to  ten  weeks,  and  should 
also  be  very  fat.  They  should  now  be  slaughtered,  hog 
dressed,  and  prepared  for  market.  This  is  more  or  less  of  a 
fancy  operation,  as  a  well  dressed  carcass  will  far  outsell 
one  that  is  poorly  finished.  In  this  connection,  no  better 
directions  can  be  given  than  those  by  H.  P.  Miller,  in  the 
"Winter  Lamb."  He  says: 

"The  preparation  for  market  requires  some  skill,  yet  only 
such  as  almost  any  one  can  develop  after  carefully  studying 
directions.  We  have  greatly  simplified  our  method  of  prepa- 
ration, and  the  lambs  apparently  sell  as  well. 

"It  is  very  important  to  have  them  thoroughly  bled  out. 
To  secure  this  we  have  found  it  advantageous  to  suspend 
the  lamb  by  the  hind  feet  in  killing.  Suspend  a  short  single- 
tree about  six  feet  from  the  ground.  Loop  a  small  rope  or 
strong  twine  about  each  hind  leg  and  attach  to  the  hooks 
of  the  singletree.  With  a  sharp-pointed  knife  sever  the  artery 
and  vein  in  the  neck  close  above  the  head.  Be  sure  to  sever 
the  artery.  Bright  red  blood  is  the  assurance.  The  venous 
blood  is  dark.  Severing  the  head  with  a  broadax  would  per- 
haps cause  less  suffering  and  insure  a  thorough  bleeding.  I 
remove  the  head  with  a  knife  as  soon  as  the  lamb  quits 
struggling.  Clip  the  wool  from  the  brisket,  and  strip  four 
or  five  inches  wide  upward  to  the  udder  or  scrotum,  also  from 
between  the  hind  legs  as  in  tagging  sheep.  Now  open  the 
lamb  from  the  tail  to  the  brisket.  Slit  the  skin  up  the  inside 
of  the  hindquarters  about  four  inches  and  loosen  the  skin 
from  the  underlying  muscles  for  two  inches  on  either  side  of 
the  openings  in  the  skin  for  the  attachment  of  the  caul  fat. 
This  should  be  removed  from  the  stomachs  before  they  are 
detached,  and  in  very  cold  weather  placed  in  warm  water  until 
ready  to  use.  Next  remove  the  stomach  and  intestines.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  season  the  liver,  heart  and  lungs  are 
not  removed,  but  when  the  weather  gets  warmer  they  must 
be.  Carefully  spread  the  caul  fat  over  all  the  exposed  flesh. 
Good  toothpicks  should  be  provided  for  attaching  it  and  hold- 
ing it  in  place.  Make  srcall  slits  in  it  over  the  kidneys  and 
pull  them  through.  This  part  of  the  work  is  the  one  that 
requires  skill  to  make  the  carcass  look  attractive.  Now  hang 
it  in  a  cool  place  for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  In  ex- 


218  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

tremely  cold  weather  twelve  hours  will  be  enough,  but  better 
make  twenty-four  the  rule.  Then  neatly  sew  a  square  yard 
of  clean  muslin  about  each  lamb  so  as  to  cover  all  exposed 
surface.  We  formerly  wrapped  each  one  in  burlap  and  at- 
tached to  a  stretcher,  but  now  place  three  in  a  light  crate 
and  tack  the  burlap  over  the  top.  We  line  the  crate  with 
heavy  paper.  Prepare  them  as  shortly  before  shipping  as 
possible.  In  warm  weather  ice  may  be  put  between  the 
lambs,  not  in  them.  Send  them  as  they  are  ready,  three  or 
six  at  a  time.  The  market  varies  greatly,  depending  upon 
weather  and  the  number  arriving.  It  is  useless  to  try  to 
get  them  all  in  on  a  high  market.  Aim  to  slaughter  regularly 
each  week  if  you  have  lambs  in  condition,  and  keep  your 
commission  firm  informed  as  to  how  many  you  will  probably 
send  and  when. 
"Attention  to  details  is  the  secret  of  success." 


LECTURE  LV, 


FATTENING   SHEEP    IN    WINTER. 

The  fattening  of  sheep  in  winter  furnishes  a  profitable  in- 
dustry to  thousands  of  farmers,  as  well  as  to  the  large  pro- 
fessional feeders,  who  fatten  any  class  of  stock  when  they 
consider  market  conditions  right.  Sheep,  like  beef  cattle, 
afford  a  means  of  condensing  the  products  of  the  farm  into 
a  concentrated  market  form;  and  fattening  sheep  are  very 
easily  handled. 

The  first  step  is  to  see  that  the  sheep  are  free  from  scab, 
lice  or  ticks.  Scab  means  ruin  to  profits,  and  lice  and  ticks 
seriously  curtail  the  fattening  tendency.  The  sheep  should 
be  carefully  examined  for  these  troubles,  and  if  they  are 
western  sheep  the  safest  plan  is  to  dip  them  anyway,  as 
scab  may  be  present  in  limited  degrees — perhaps  only  on  one 
or  two  animals — yet  it  will  spread  through  the  flock  like  wild- 
fire when  they  are  fairly  started  on  feed.  The  safest  and 
cheapest  plan  is  to  dip;  and  this  is  taken  up  in  detail  in  a 
later  lesson. 

When  sheep  are  fed  on  a  very  large  scale,  as  is  frequently 
done  in  western  Nebraska,  or  Minnesota,  no  sheds  are  pro- 
vided, and  the  sheep  are  fed  on  the  open  fields,  sometimes  in 
bands  of  ten  or  fifteen  thousand.  Picket  fences  through 
which  they  can  reach  are  provided,  and  hay  is  pushed  up 
to  the  fence  once  or  twice  a  day.  Grain  is  fed  in  shallow 
troughs  here  and  there  in  the  lots.  Under  such  general  con- 
ditions the  grain  is  usually  shelled  corn,  fed  with  prairie  hay; 
or  under  Minnesota  conditions,  wheat  screenings  and  prairie 
hay  furnish  the  feed. 

The  economy  of  such  a  plan  of  feed,  and  the  eminently 
satisfactory  results  it  has  given,  commands  it  to  all  feeders; 
but  Iowa  winters  usually  furnish  cold,  wet  snows,  chilling 
winds,  and  more  or  less  rain  toward  spring.  Sheep  must  be 
protected  from  this  wet;  hence  for  most  parts  of  the  state 
sheds  which  will  protect  the  sheep  from  the  north  winds, 
and  from  wet  snows  or  rains,  are  necessary.  These  sheds 


220  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

need  not  be  costly  or  elaborate;  the  south  side  may  be  left 
entirely  open.  The  yard  should  be  well  drained,  graded  and 
surfaced  to  carry  off  superflous  water.  Sheep  love  the  dry 
and  must  have  it  if  they  are  to  do  well.  With  sheds  on  the 
north,  dry  footing  beneath,  and  yards  on  the  southern  slope, 
the  sheep  are  under  comfortable  conditions  and  will  do  well. 
For  feeding  roughage  the  old  plan  of  a  picket  fence  is  the 
best  yet  devised.  It  can  be  placed  parallel  to  and  about  fifteen 
feet  distant  from  the  regular  outside  fence,  and  between 
these  the  hay  and  fodder  can  be  thrown  off  in  wholesale 
quantities,  and  then  moved  up  next  the  picket  fence,  where 
the  sheep  can  get  it  as  needed. 

Good  clover  hay  is  ideal  roughage,  and  alfalfa  is  still  bet- 
ter, when  it  can  be  secured.  Where  neither  of  these  feeds 
is  available,  bright  corn  fodder  is  the  next  best  feed,  is  greatly 
relished  by  sheep,  and  gives  good  results.  It  is  useless  to 
shred  or  cut  fodder  for  fattening  sheep  (unless  the  refuse 
is  desired  for  bedding),  as  they  will  not  consume  the  rougher 
portions  as  cattle  will  under  similar  conditions.  To  feed 
the  grain,  flat-bottomed  troughs,  from  10  to  12  inches  wide 
and  12  to  16  feet  long,  should  be  provided.  Henry  says  that 
100-pound  sheep  should  be  allowed  15  inches  space  at  the 
trough,  and  200-pound  sheep  24  inches.  Where  the  troughs 
set  out  in  the  open,  where  the  sheep  can  get  at  them  from 
both  sides,  less  room  than  this  will  be  needed. 

For  grain  feed  shelled  corn  is  the  great  standard.  Sheep 
masticate  the  food  much  more  thoroughly  than  cattle  do,  and 
grinding  is  unnecessary.  The  sheep  should  be  brought  on 
feed  very  gradually,  and  as  good  a  plan  as  any  is  to  feed 
some  bran  for  the  first  ten  or  fifteen  days.  If  the  feed  is  to 
be  a  short  one,  they  should  be  receiving  a  pound  per  day  per 
head  by  the  end  of  the  first  twenty-five  days,  and  by  the  end 
of  forty  or  forty-five  days  should  be  receiving  from  one  and 
one-half  to  two  pounds  per  head  daily;  the  exact  amount  will 
vary  in  the  case  of  different  bunches,  some  proving  heavy, 
hearty  feeders  and  others  much  less  so.  The  aim  is,  how- 
ever, to  give  them  all  they  will  consume  after  they  are  once 
up  on  full  feed.  Shelled  corn,  with  some  bran  and  clover 
hay,  is  as  satisfactory  a  ration  as  can  be  secured  for  fatten- 
ing sheep,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  is  as  economical 
a  ration  as  can  be  fed.  When  such  supplemental  feed  stuffs 
as  oil  meal  and  gluten  feed  are  low  in  price,  they  can  be  used 
to  good  advantage;  and  whenever  emmer,  cow  peas  or  soy 


FATTENING  SHEEP  IN  WINTER.  221 

beans  can  be  secured  at  moderate  prices  they  can  be  used, 
as  they  are  greatly  relished  by  sheep. 

In  the  actual  work  of  feeding,  quietness  should  be  observed. 
It  is  well  not  to  feed  too  early  in  the  winter  time;  daylight 
is  plenty  soon  enough.  The  same  attendants  should  do  all 
the  work,  or  at  least  as  far  as  possible;  and  strangers  or 
dogs  should  not  be  allowed  in  the  lot,  as  they  are  very  apt 
to  frighten  the  sheep  and  cause  them  to  lose  flesh  in  running 
and  jamming  around. 

Protection  from  sweeping  winds,  wet  snow  or  rains,  to- 
gether with  economical  feeding  arrangements,  good  judgment 
in  buying  feeds,  and  regular,  careful  feeding,  to  the  limit, 
are  the  essentials  which  combine  to  make  success  certain. 


LECTURE   LVI. 


FATTENING  SHEEP  IN  SUMMER. 

Many  experiments  and  the  testimony  of  many  practical 
feeders  have  shown,  conclusively,  that  cattle  can  be  fed  more 
economically  in  summer  than  in  winter;  and  while  the  ex- 
periments along  this  line  in  sheep  feeding  are  less  numerous 
than  in  cattle  feeding,  they  are  quite  as  conclusive. 

Experiments  conducted  in  1901,  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station,  in  which  1G1  yearling  wethers  were  fed,  showed  that 
the  sheep  made  .406  pound  gain  per  day  on  bluegrass  pasture 
alone;  that  they  made  .46  pound  gain  per  day  on  corn  and 
bluegrass;  on  oats  and  bluegrass  pasture  .42  pound  per  day; 
on  barley  and  bluegrass  pasture  .39  pound  per  day.  Such 
gains  as  these  are  very  large  in  feeding  sheep,  and  show 
that  very  satisfactory  and  economical  gains  can  be  made 
on  summer  feeding;  and  furthermore,  it  was  found  that  the 
most  economical  gains  were  made  on  bluegrass  pasture  alone. 
In  another  experiment  made  the  same  fall,  in  which  100  head 
of  yearling  wethers  were  fed  in  seven  lots,  the  results  showed 
that  more  economical  gains  could  be  made  on  corn  and 
grass,  or  on  grass  alone,  than  on  any  usual  combination  of 
grains  and  clover  hay.  The  gains  on  grass,  however,  were 
not  as  great  as  desired;  this  was  due,  however,  to  the  fact 
that  the  grass  was  washy,  due  to  its  having  been  burnt  over 
just  prior  to  the  time  the  sheep  were  placed  on  it. 

The  above  experiments  and  the  general  knowledge  of  ex- 
perienced feeders  indicate  that  summer  feeding  is  advisable 
whenever  good  pasture  can  be  secured;  and  the  results  also 
show  that  where  sheep  have  the  run  of  abundant  bluegrass 
pasture,  that  more  economical  results  can  be  secured  on 
grass  alone  than  on  grass  and  grain.  This  does  not  neces- 
sarily indicate,  however,  that  grain  should  not  be  fed  to 
sheep  that  are  on  pasture.  This  must  be  governed  by  local 
conditions,  such  as  kind  of  pasture,  abundance  of  same,  and 
cost  of  grain  that  one  desires  to  feed. 

For  yearlings   or   mature   sheep   bluegrass   pasture   is   the 


FATTENING  SHEEP  IN  SUMMER.  223 

feed  par  excellence,  but  this  caution  must  be  borne  in  mind: 
Parasites  that  are  extremely  destructive  to  sheep  are  far 
more  liable  to  find  their  way  into  sheep  when  they  are 
grazing  upon  short,  close  grass — such  as  bluegrass  is — than 
when  they  are  running  upon  higher  growing  grasses,  such 
as  red  clover  and  alfalfa.  Besides  this,  these  parasites  never 
trouble  sheep  that  are  feeding  on  a  pasture  where  sheep 
have  not  previously  fed;  hence  it  is  that  new  pastures  insure 
freedom  from  the  parasites  which  are  the  bane  of  the  sheep 
grower's  existence.  Bluegrass  is  the  earliest  and  choicest 
feed  we  have,  but  if  sheep  have  run  on  it  for  several  years, 
there  is  danger  from  the  parasites,  even  in  the  case  of  ma- 
ture sheep;  and  it  is  almost  certain  death  to  lambs.  Hence 
judgment  must  be  used  in  allowing  sheep  to  run  on  blue- 
grass  pasture,  and  it  must  ever  be  remembered  that  one  is 
taking  considerable  risk  in  allowing  sheep  on  old  pastures. 
When  bluegrass  has  been  decided  upon,  however,  and  where 
it  is  abundant  and  not  too  washy,  no  other  feed  need  be 
given.  If  soft  or  somewhat  scarce,  some  corn  and  bran 
should  be  fed  with  it.  In  starting  the  sheep  on  pasture  in 
the  spring,  it  is  best  to  turn  them  on  some  pasture  where  the 
old  grass  makes  up  a  large  part  of  the  feed;  on  such  pas- 
ture the  sheep  will  get  a  bite  of  old  grass  with  the  new, 
which  will  prevent  scouring,  which  is  very  liable  to  occur 
if  the  sheep  are  turned  on  pasture  that  consists  wholly  of 
new  grass.  The  pasture  should  be  abundant  and  particular 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  overstock  it  during  May  and  June, 
for  if  this  is  done,  no  feed  will  be  procurable  in  July  and 
August;  and  it  cannot  be  too  thoroughly  emphasized  that 
more  feed  can  be  secured  from  a  pasture  by  grazing  it  mod- 
erately than  by  keeping  it  grazed  close  to  the  ground.  Corn 
is  the  staple  feed  in  the  great  central  states,  and  gives  the 
most  satisfactory  results  of  any  grain  fed  in  conjunction 
with  bluegrass  pasture.  In  starting  the  feed  begin  gradually 
— giving  not  more  than  one-third  of  a  pound  of  shelled  corn 
with  about  the  same  amount  of  bran  to  each  animal  for  the 
first  few  days.  The  corn  should  be  gradually  increased  and 
the  bran  decreased  until  at  the  end  of  ten  or  fifteen  days 
the  bran  may  be  wholly  discontinued,  and  the  sheep  should  be 
receiving  from  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  a  pound  shelled 
corn  per  head  per  day.  If  the  feeding  period  is  to  be  a  short 
one,  the  sheep  may  be  brought  to  full  feed,  about  two  pounds 
shelled  corn  per  day,  within  thirty  days.  But  if  the  feed- 


224  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

ing  period  is  to  be  long,  a  little  more  time  should  be  used 
in  getting  the  sheep  to  full  feed.  The  exact  amount  must 
be  governed  by  the  particular  conditions.  On  long  feeds, 
where  pasture  is  plentiful,  it  will  be  most  profitable  to  feed 
only  about  half  what  the  animals  would  take.  On  short 
feeds  and  where  pasture  is  somewhat  limited,  it  is  usually 
advisable  to  crowd  the  animals,  giving  them  all  they  will 
eat  up  clean. 

The  fattening  of  lambs  is  a  very  profitable  branch  of  sheep 
husbandry,  and  lambs  are  preferred  to  the  older  sheep.  The 
favorite  on  the  market  is  the  handy  weight  lamb,  aged  about 
six  months  and  weighing  in  the  neighborhood  of  100  pounds. 
They  can  be  fed  on  pasture  even  more  profitably  than  older 
sheep,  for  blue-grass,  alfalfa  or  clover  supply  a  high  per 
cent,  of  protein,  which  the  lambs  need  more  than  older  sheep 
do.  Bluegrass  pasture,  however,  is  dangerous  to  young 
lambs  if  sheep  have  grazed  upon  it  during  the  preceding 
season,  for  stomach  worms  and  other  such  parasites  are  more 
apt  to  be  gathered  up  by  the  lambs  when  feeding  on  the 
short,  sweet  bluegrass  than  on  any  other  pasture.  In  fat- 
tening lambs  in  summer,  therefore,  it  is  best  to  depend  upon 
red  clover,  alfalfa  and  the  more  common  forage  crops;  and 
wherever  sufficient  sheep  are  kept  to  warrant  the  employ- 
ment of  a  regular  shepherd  the  use  of  hurdles,  whereby  the 
lambs  may  be  permitted  to  run  ahead  of  the  ewes,  will  prove 
very  satisfactory,  and  will  result  in  increased  thrift  among 
the  lambs.  In  pasturing  either  clover  or  alfalfa  the  sheep 
should  not  be  turned  in  until  the  clover  or  alfalfa  is  well 
grown,  and  then  should  be  turned  in  when  well  filled  up  on 
other  grass,  and  when  the  dew  or  wet  is  off;  and  after  being 
so  turned  in  should  never  be  taken  off,  though  a  shed  may 
be  provided  where  the  sheep  may  shade  at  midday.  On 
such  pasture  with  their  mothers  the  lambs  will  make  prodi- 
gious growth,  and  when  weaning  time  comes  they  may  be 
turned  into  another  such  field,  or  if  clover  or  alfalfa  be 
limited,  they  may  be  turned  on  rape,  soy  beans,  or  cow  peas. 
Any  of  these  may  be  sown  in  a  cornfield  at  the  last  cultiva- 
tion, or  in  oats  or  barley,  and  no  better  feed  can  be  found. 

By  the  time  the  youngsters  are  a  month  or  six  weeks  old, 
the  ewes  should  be  given  a  little  grain  in  long  feed  troughs, 
where  the  lambs  may  get  a  taste  of  the  feed.  As  soon  as 
they  have  developed  a  taste  for  grain  a  separate  pen  should 
be  provided,  with  a  "creep"  through  which  the  lambs  may 


FATTENING  SHEEP  IN  SUMMER.  22o 

pass.  In  this  pen  a  feed  trough  should  be  placed,  and  here 
the  lambs  may  be  fed  twice  daily,  beginning  on  shelled  corn 
and  bran,  and  gradually  decreasing  the  bran  till  it  forms  not 
more  than  one-tenth  of  the  ration  by  weight.  When  the 
lambs  are  weaned  the  grain  ration  should  be  increased  until 
the  youngsters  are  getting  all  they  will  eat  up  clean  twice 
a  day.  Fed  in  this  manner  they  will  make  rapid  gains  and 
will  also  be  ripe  and  ready  for  slaughter  by  the  time  they 
weigh  from  90  to  100  pounds. 

In  conclusion,  we  see  that  sheep  may  be  fed  more  econom- 
ically and  profitably  on  grass  and  grain  than  in  the  dry  lot; 
that  very  profitable  gains  can  be  secured  on  bluegrass  pasture 
alone  where  such  pasture  is  good;  that  lambs  should  not 
be  allowed  the  run  of  bluegrass  pasture  if  sheep  have  pas- 
tured on  the  same  in  preceding  years;  that  alfalfa  and  red 
clover  are  the  most  satisfactory  early  pasture  for  lambs; 
that  soy  beans,  cow  peas  or  rape  all  make  satisfactory  late 
pastures;  and  that  corn  is,  as  a  general  rule,  the  most  satis- 
factory grain  feed  that  can  be  used  in  fattening  sheep  on 
pasture. 


LECTURE  LVII. 


DIPPING    SHEEP. 

Sheep  are  dipped  to  free  them  from  ticks  and  from  scab. 
Ticks  occur  in  practically  all  flocks.  They  may  be  very 
plentiful,  in  which  case  they  do  much  damage;  or  they  may 
be  present  to  only  a  slight  extent.  In  either  case  they  are 
a  detriment  to  the  thrift  of  the  sheep  and  should  be  gotten 
rid  of. 

Scab  is  caused  by  a  very  minute  parasite  which  burrows 
into  the  skin,  causes  a  scabby  condition,  and  brings  about 
a  loss  of  much  of  the  wool,  great  emaciation,  and  restlessness. 
Sheep  so  affected  will  do  no  good  in  the  breeding  flock  or 
the  feed  lot.  The  disease  is  spread  by  contact,  either  with 
sheep  that  are  affected,  or  with  posts,  fences,  feed  boxes,  etc., 
where  scabby  sheep  have  rubbed.  Scab  is  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult of  radication,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  scab  parasite, 
known  to  scientific  men  as  Psoroptes  communis,  keeps  under 
the  protection  of  the  dry  scales  or  scabs,  and  these  must  be 
loosened  or  softened  before  the  dipping  solution  can  affect 
the  parasite. 

Sheep  ticks  are  easily  seen  by  any  one  who  will  take  the 
trouble  to  examine  affected  sheep.  The  parasite  that  causes 
scab  is  not  so  easily  seen,  but  it  reveals  its  presence  by 
small,  scabby  places  here  and  there  on  the  body,  and  by 
bare  places  where  the  wool  has  been  torn  out  by  rubbing. 
If  some  of  the  scales  be  removed  and  promptly  transferred 
to  a  piece  of  black  paper,  the  parasite  may  be  seen  as  a 
very  minute,  light  colored  mite,  crawling  about.  Scab  is 
extremely  virulent,  spreading  rapidly  in  a  flock  of  sheep 
and  precluding  all  possibility  of  profit  in  keeping  an  affected 
flock  useless  unless  prompt  steps  are  taken  to  dispose  of 
the  disease. 

Treatment. 

The  only  satisfactory  method  of  dealing  with  ticks  or  scab 
is  by  dipping.  This  should  be  done  at  least  once  a  year  as  a 


DIPPING  SHEEP.  227 

precaution  and  to  dispose  of  what  few  ticks  are  present,  for 
it  is  indeed  a  rare  thing  to  find  a  flock  wholly  free  from  ticks. 
Where  the  ticks  are  plentiful,  two  dippings  per  year  are  ad- 
visable. Where  scab  is  found  the  promptest  measures  must 
be  taken  to  stamp  out  the  trouble.  Two  dippings  should  be 
given — ten  days  apart,  and  the  dip  should  be  applied  warm 
— about  110  degrees  F.,  unless  a  dip  containing  caustic,  as 
lime,  is  used.  The  dips  that  are  recommended  by  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.,  are  the  lime  and 
sulphur  dip,  tobacco  and  sulphur  dip,  and  nicotine  and  sul- 
phur. These  dips  are  all  of  such  a  nature  that  they  may  be 
made  up  at  home,  and  they  are  used  very  satisfactorily  and 
effectively  on  a  large  scale.  The  extreme  care  necessary 
in  making  up  these  dips,  however,  and  the  injurious  and 
often  dangerous  results  brought  about  by  improper  prepara- 
tion of  these  dips,  renders  them  somewhat  impracticable  for 
the  small  farmer  or  flock  owner.  In  addition  to  this  is  the 
further  disadvantage  of  the  trouble  of  preparing  them,  and 
the  fact  that  the  lime  and  sulphur  dip  always  injures  the 
wool  fiber  to  some  extent,  especially  if  it  is  used  at  any  time 
other  than  shortly  after  shearing.  These  dips,  however,  have 
the  advantage  of  being  cheaper  than  any  of  the  proprietary 
dips,  especially  when  used  on  a  large  scale.  Inasmuch  as 
they  are  somewhat  impracticable  for  Iowa  conditions,  full 
directions  for  making  them  will  not  be  given  here.  Those 
who  desire  to  use  them  should  write  to  their  congressman  for 
the  Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, which  discusses  these  dips  in  full. 

There  are  numerous  proprietary  dips  on  the  market,  some 
of  which  are  quite  effective  when  used  according  to  direc- 
tions, and  many  which  are  not.  All  have  the  disadvantage  of 
higher  cost  than  the  home-made  dips,  but  the  best  injure  the 
wool  much  less  than  the  lime  and  sulphur  dip.  In  fact,  some 
are  rathe,r  beneficial  than  otherwise  in  effect  on  the  wool. 
Those  which  appear  to  give  the  best  satisfaction  to  flock 
masters,  so  far  as  can  be  learned,  are  Zenoleum,  Chloro- 
Naptholeum,  Cooper's  Sheep  Dip,  Little's  Sheep  Dip,  and 
Car-sul  Dip. 

The  first  two  are  carbolized  dips,  based  on  coal  tar  by- 
products. The  third  and  fourth  are  arsenical  dips,  and  the 
last  is  a  coal  tar  dip  with  sulphur.  All  appear  to  be  reason- 
ably effective,  but  must  be  used  hot  (110  degrees  F.)  in 
order  to  soften  the  scab  sufficiently  to  penetrate  to  the  para- 


228 


LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 


sites  beneath.  Any  proprietary  dip  should  be  used  strictly 
according  to  directions.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  case 
of  the  poisonous  dips.  For  ticks  these  dips  need  not  be  hot. 

To  accomplish  satisfactory  results  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  regular  dipping  tank.  These  can  be  made  of  wood,  but  the 
galvanized  tanks  are  cheaper  and  better.  Galvanized  steel 
tanks  4  feet  deep,  10  feet  long  on  top,  5  feet  long  on  bot- 
tom, 20  inches  wide  on  top  and  15  inches  wide  at  the  bottom, 
weighing  from  160  to  225  pounds — the  standard  size  for  such 
tanks — can  be  purchased  most  cheaply  from  the  firms  that 
sell  the  proprietary  dips,  as  they  sell  the  tanks  at  very 
low  cost  to  introduce  their  dips.  •  The  cost  will  vary  from 
$8.50  to  $16.00,  depending  upon  the  grade  of  tank  purchased. 
A  very  good  one  can  be  bought  for  $12.50. 

The  tank  should  be  set  in  the  ground  and  small  yards 
arranged  so  as  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  animals  to 
the  tank.  The  accompanying  sketch  shows  a  very  convenient 
arrangement: 


PLAN  /  DIPPING  PLANT. 


By  having  two  draining  pens  the  dipping  can  go  on  con- 
tinuously; one  pen  filled,  the  gate  from  the  center  partition 
is  simply  swung  around,  diverting  the  sheep  into  the  other 
pen.  The  floor  of  the  draining  pens  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  divert  the  drainage  into  barrels  stationed  at  F.  Here 


DIPPING  SHEEP.  229 

the  liquid  can  settle  and  then  it  may  be  drawn  off  with  a 
siphon,  thereby  preventing  manure,  etc.,  from  passing  from 
the  draining  pens  into  the  tank. 

The  same  general  principles  laid  down  for  sheep  dipping 
will  apply  to  hogs,  and  the  proprietary  dips  are  used  most 
extensively.  Lice  are  the  parasites  fought  and  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  controlling  them. 

As  to  frequency  of  dipping,  sheep  should  be  dipped  -twice 
per  year — lambs  and  all.  Hogs  should  be  dipped  whenever 
it  appears  necessary,  and  it  will  usually  be  found  profitable 
to  dip  two  or  three  times  a  season  even  though  lice  may  not 
appear  to  be  present. 


LECTURE  LVIII. 


FORAGE  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP. 

The  question  of  forage  crops  for  sheep  is  one  of  the  most 
important  to  the  sheep  raiser  in  the  central  west,  because 
of  the  internal  parasites  which  make  life  a  burden  to  the 
flock  master. 

The  different  crops  used  for  forage  purposes  may  be  classed 
as  early  or  spring  crops,  mid-summer  forage  plants,  and  fall 
forage. 

Winter  wheat  and  rye,  where  they  can  be  grown,  are  two 
of  the  most  valuable  early  feeds.  They  may  be  pastured 
when  grown  for  the  grain,  but  it  is  best  to  have  a  small  plot 
expressly  for  pasture  purposes.  Red  clover  and  alfalfa  both 
furnish  valuable  early  pasture,  usually  (in  Iowa)  becoming 
available  in  the  early  part  of  May,  and  they  are  also  good  in 
summer  or  in  fall  if  mowed  or  kept  grazed  down.  It  is  best 
to  have  a  limited  area  of  these  for  the  sheep  to  run  on  and 
to  graze  this  down  before  allowing  more  range  to  feed  on. 
In  this  way  waste  is  reduced  to  a  minimum — a  very  import- 
ant matter  when  the  pastures  are  yet  undeveloped.  This 
can  be  arranged  by  providing  hurdles,  which  will  be  dis- 
cussed later. 

Of  the  spring  sown  crops  which  become  available  by  the 
last  of  June  or  the  first  of  July,  rape  and  sorghum  are  two 
of  the  most  valuable.  Both  do  best  on  fairly  rich  soil,  which 
should  be  well  prepared.  Sorghum  can  best  be  sown  broad- 
cast, from  80  to  100  pounds  per  acre,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil;  rape  should  be  sown  broadcast  at  from  3  to  4 
pounds  per  acre.  The  heavier  sowing  gives  a  larger  yield, 
but  it  is  scarcely  so  valuable  from  a  food  standpoint  as  the 
lighter  seeding.  If  sown  in  drills  24  inches  apart,  from 
1  to  ll/2  pounds  per  acre  is  sufficient.  Both  rape  and  sorghum 
ir ay  be  sown  at  any  time  from  May  1  until  August.  July 
sowing,  however,  is  better  for  rape  than  sorghum.  Rape  or 
sorghum  sown  in  May  will  do  to  turn  on  by  the  last  of  June 
or  first  of  July.  If  sown  about  the  middle  of  June  in  a 


FORAGE  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP.  231 

favorable  season  it  will  be  ready  to  pasture  in  thirty  days. 
Both  crops,  however,  possess  more  feeding  value  as  they 
approach  maturity.  Rape  can  very  often  be  sown  to  good 
advantage  with  oats.  At  the  Iowa  station  (1889)  rape  so 
sown — one  pound  rape  and  six  pecks  of  oats  per  acre — gave 
a  yield  of  eighteen  tons  per  acre  besides  sixty  bushels  of 
oats  per  acre.  The  rape  interfered  but  slightly  in  harvesting 
the  oats,  and  afterwards  came  on  and  made  the  above  ex- 
cellent yield. 

Besides  rape  and  sorghum,  two  of  the  most  valuable  forage 
crops  we  have  for  sheep  are  legumes  that  can  be  spring 
or  summer  sown  to  good  advantage.  These  are  cow  peas 
and  soja  beans.  They  may  be  sown  alone  or  in  corn,  and 
furnish  the  very  choicest  of  feed.  Best  results  are  usually 
obtained  by  sowing  in  drills,  twenty-four  inches  apart,  and 
cultivating.  The  peas  or  beans  should  be  dropped  from 
three  to  four  inches  apart  in  the  drills.  If  sown  broadcast, 
from  three  pecks  to  one  bushel  of  seed  should  be  used  per 
acre  on  rich  soil.  Neither  soy  beans  nor  cow  peas  mature 
with  certainty  in  this  state,  and  seed  must  usually  be  ob- 
tained from  a  distance.  If  sown  alone  they  should  be  sown 
in  May — as  soon  as  the  ground  warms  up  well.  If  sown  in 
corn  it  will  necessarily  be  at  the  last  cultivating,  and  the 
cow  peas  are  preferable  to  the  soy  beans  for  this  purpose. 
In  early  corn,  which  is  laid  by  in  June,  the  peas  will  make  a 
vigorous  growth  and  will  be  in  good  shape  to  turn  lambs 
on  in  the  latter  part  of  August. 

The  foregoing  list  gives  a  succession  of  forage  crops,  all 
desirable  for  sheep  pasturage,  from  early  in  May  until  well 
into  the  frost  season  in  the  fall,  and  sheep  carried  on  such 
pasture  will  remain  free  from  stomach  worms,  liver  flukes 
and  other  intestinal  parasites  which  infest  only  pastures  that 
are  grazed  for  two  or  more  consecutive  years. 

Other  crops,  such  as  oats  and  peas,  sweet  corn,  etc.,  may 
also  be  grown,  but  the  ones  mentioned  are  all  crops  that 
have  proved  their  worth,  and  no  farmer  need  hesitate  to 
sow  them. 

In  growing  any  forage  crop,  the  most  gains  from  a  mini- 
mum amount  of  land  is  secured  when  hurdles  are  used.  These 
are  made  of  ordinary  fencing  material,  sixteen  feet  long. 
Each  panel  has  three  boards,  held  together  by  three  or  four 
uprights.  Two  of  these  are  attached  by  hinges  to  a  third 
in  such  a  way  that  the  three  will  fold  together.  The  result 


232  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

is  forty-eight  feet  of  fencing  in  a  light,  handy  form,  and 
when  a  number  of  these  are  hooked  together  and  braced 
with  light,  inexpensive  braces,  a  fence  that  is  cheap  and 
very  easily  moved  is  secured.  With  these  hurdles  a  certain 
portion  of  the  forage  crop  may  be  fenced  off  and  the  fence 
set  forward  every  few  days  when  the  sheep  have  cleaned 
up  what  they  have  access  to.  The  advantage  of  this  plan 
in  economizing  the  feed  is  apparent.  The  disadvantage  is 
that  it  requires  some  labor  to  move  the  hurdles  from  time 
to  time.  Each  man  must  decide  for  himself  as  to  the  ad- 
visability of  hurdling,  as  local  conditions,  such  as  scarcity 
of  feed,  cost  of  labor,  etc.,  must  be  the  controlling  factors. 

The  essential  point  about  forage  crops  for  sheep  is  that 
they  give  practical  immunity  from  parasites,  which  cause 
most  of  the  loss  in  sheep  growing.  In  addition,  they  are  sure 
to  produce  plenty  of  pasture,  even  in  seasons  when  blue- 
grass  pasture  becomes  brown  and  scant. 


LECTURE  LIX. 


ECONOMICAL  METHOD  OF  STARTING  A  FLOCK. 

In  the  central  west  sheep  are  kept  for  three  purposes:  as 
mutton  producers,  as  wool  producers,  and  as  weed  destroy- 
ers. These  are  the  three  sources  of  income  from  the  flock 
of  sheep.  As  weed  destroyers  they  have  no  equal,  as  they 
will  eat  readily  over  575  out  of  the  600  different  kinds  of 
weeds  which  grow  in  this  country.  The  horse  eats  about 
eighty,  while  cattle  eat  but  fifty  or  sixty.  For  this  purpose 
alone  sheep  are  useful  and  no  farmer  can  afford  to  be  with- 
out a  small  flock. 

From  a  mutton  and  wool  producing  standpoint  they  are 
also  valuable.  This  being  the  case,  we  should  pay  attention 
to  mutton  form  and  the  growth  of  wool  in  selecting  animals 
for  foundation  stock.  A  man's  liking  for  any  business  is 
more  or  less  controlled  by  the  financial  returns  from  the 
same.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  sheep  breeding  business. 
If  good  judgment  is  used  at  the  beginning  no  class  of  farm 
animals  will  return  as  great  profits  on  the  investment  as 
will  sheep.  In  starting  the  flock  some  advise  the  purchase 
of  purebred  animals,  such  as  a  bunch  of  ewe  lambs.  This 
means  a  heavy  outlay  of  money  at  the  beginning  with  not 
much  income  during  the  first  year.  A  ewe  should  not  drop 
her  first  lamb  before  she  is  two  years  old,  thus  the  only 
source  of  income  from  the  ewe  lamb  is  her  wool  clip,  which 
should  pay  for  her  keep. 

For  the  man  who  has  no  sheep  a  much  more  economical 
and  profitable  method  of  starting  the  flock  would  be  to  pur- 
chase the  so-called  old  ewes  which  have  been  discarded  from 
the  flocks  of  sheep  men.  Many  people  consider  a  ewe  to  be 
old  and  undesirable  when  she  attains  the  age  of  five  years. 
Such  a  ewe,  if  a  good  breeder,  will  not  appear  so  nice  to 
the  eye  of  the  visitor  as  the  two  or  three-year-old  ewe.  Still, 
if  her  udder  is  good,  there  is  no  reason  why  she  should  not 
be  profitable  from  a  breeding  standpoint  until  she  is  eight 
or  ten  years  old.  She  is  just  the  kind  of  an  animal  for  the 


234  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

beginner  in  the  sheep  business  to  handle.  During  the  month 
of  September  and  the  early  part  of  October  each  year  there 
are  thousands  of  just  such  ewes  sent  to  our  markets,  where 
they  are  a  drug  on  the  market.  A  ewe  which  has  reared 
a  good  lamb  or  perhaps  two  lambs  is  always  rather  thin  in 
flesh.  This  being  the  case,  the  butcher  does  not  want  her, 
except  at  a  very  low  price.  They  can  usually  be  purchased 
at  from  $1.50  to  $3.00  per  head  at  any  of  our  leading  live 
stock  markets.  In  selecting  such  ewes  get  those  which  show 
good  breeding  and  have  good  fleeces.  Have  them  dipped 
before  leaving  the  yards,  and  better  still,  after  they  arrive 
home  as  a  safeguard  against  scab,  vermin  and  other  troubles. 

Having  secured  a  flock  of  old  ewes  for  a  small  amount  of 
money,  you  can  now  afford  to  spend  some  money  in  the 
purchase  of  a  good  sire.  He  cannot  be  too  good  from  a 
mutton  and  wool  producing  standpoint.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  he  have  all  the  fancy  points  of  his  breed,  such  as  color 
markings,  wooling  of  the  head  and  legs,  and  other  fancy 
points.  It  is  very  important,  however,  that  he  does  have 
a  good  mutton  form,  a  good,  heavy  fleece  of  wool,  and  a 
strong  constitution,  as  indicated  by  width  and  depth  of  chest. 
He  must  be  right  in  every  respect,  because  he  is  more  than 
half  the  flock. 

The  ewes  should  be  well  fed  during  mating  season,  also 
during  the  winter  months.  The  next  fall  some  culling  out 
should  be  done.  Those  ewes  which  are  oldest  and  least 
prolific  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  flock  and 
fattened  for  the  market,  to  be  sold  in  December  or  January; 
not  September,  when  the  market  is  always  overstocked  with 
such  animals.  A  number  of  the  best  ewe  lambs  should  be 
selected  to  replace  the  old  ewes  which  have  been  discarded, 
in  this  way  selecting  the  foundation  for  the  future  breeding 
flock.  If  this  method  is  followed  up,  in  a  few  years  all  of 
the  old  ewes  will  be  replaced  by  younger  ones  of  better  type 
and  breeding.  At  the  same  time  the  flock  will  pay  larger 
dividends  on  the  capital  invested  than  any  other  class  of 
stock  on  the  farm. 

By  getting  a  new  and  better  sire  every  two  years  an  ex- 
cellent flock  can  be  built  up  from  a  very  small  outlay  of 
money.  More  attention  should  be  paid  to  breed  type  in  the 
selection  of  the  sire  from  year  to  year,  as  by  so  doing  the 
type  of  the  entire  flock  will  be  very  much  improved.  If  after 
a  few  years'  experience  with  the  flock  you  wish  to  establish 


STARTING  A  FLOCK.  235 

a  purebred  flock,  a  few  choice  purebred  ewes  may  be  added  to 
the  original  flock.  Then  by  proper  care  and  selection  the 
purebreds  may  be  increased  from  year  to  year  and  the  grades 
discarded. 

The  majority  of  men,  however,  will  make  more  money  by 
handling  a  flock  of  good,  high  grade  sheep,  the  offspring  of 
which  are  sold  for  market  purposes,  than  by  engaging  In 
the  purebred  business.  Every  man  should  keep  a  purebred 
sire,  but  few  men  are  qualified  to  make  a  success  of  handling 
purebred  stock. 


LECTURE  LX. 


SHEDS  OR  HOUSES  SUITABLE  FOR  SHEEP. 

Sheep,  unlike  many  other  kinds  of  stock,  do  not  require 
elaborate  buildings.  There  is  no  need  of  an  expensive 
structure,  but  ample  provision  must  be  made  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  animals.  In  this  connection,  however,  the  severity 
of  the  winter  must  be  considered.  In  those  sections  of  the 
country  where  the  winters  are  long  and  severe  more  water 
and  more  expensive  sheep  barns  are  needed  than  in  the 
milder  climate.  Plenty  of  room  should  be  provided,  as 
sheep  do  not  do  well  in  cramped  quarters.  The  fleece  of 
the  sheep  serves  as  means  of  protection  in  time  of  cold. 
One  thing,  however,  which  must  not  be  overlooked  is  the 
fact  that  sheep  must  have  dry  quarters.  They  will  not  thrive 
in  damp  quarters.  They  must  be  kept  dry  under  foot  and 
overhead  if  the  best  of  results  are  expected.  Sheep  in  the 
natural  state  always  seek  high  ground,  where  it  is  dry  and 
clear. 

In  dry  climates  and  especially  where  the  lambs  are  not 
dropped  early  in  the  season,  sheep  may  be  kept  in  almost 
any  kind  of  a  structure  that  will  be  dry  under  foot;  provide 
shelter  from  draughts  and  storms.  In  many  such  instances 
a  shed  made  from  poles  covered  with  straw  or  native  hay, 
fixed  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  draughts  and  dampness  due 
to  dripping,  has  served  an  admirable  purpose  for  the  beginner 
in  the  sheep  business. 

In  some  instances  the  basement  of  a  barn  is  used  for  sheep, 
but  as  a  general  rule  such  a  place  is  not  dry  enough,  espe- 
cially in  the  spring  of  the  year,  thus  is  oftentimes  very  un- 
healthy. 

Where  the  sheep  barn  is  built  as  a  separate  building  it 
should  be  high  enough  to  provide  ample  room  for  the  storage 
of  a  considerable  amount  of  hay  and  straw  overhead.  This 
will  add  very  much  to  the  convenience  of  the  same  and  re- 
duce very  materially  the  amount  of  labor  required  in  caring 
for  the  flock.  The  barn  should  be  narrow  and  long  rather 


BUILDINGS  FOR  SHEEP.  237 

than  wide.     In  shape  it  should  be  L  shaped  and  built  so  as 
to   provide   protection   from   the   north   and   the   west,   as    it 
is  from  these  directions  that  most  of  our  severe  winds  come. 
A  barn  of  this  construction  should  not  be  more  than  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  feet  wide.     There  should  be  an  alley  along  the 
north  and  west  sides  about  four  or  five  feet  wide  for  feeding 
purposes.    In  fact,  many  good  barns  are  not  more  than  twenty 
feet  wide  with  a  four-foot  alley,  leaving  about  sixteen  feet 
clear  for  the  sheep.     This  arrangement  of  a  barn  divides  up 
very    nicely.      No    stationary    partitions    are   needed,    as    the 
feed  racks,  which  should  be  sixteen  feet  long,  will  serve  two 
purposes.     They  can  be  put  in  crosswise,  thus  making  a  real 
good  partition.     This  method  of  dividing  the  barn  proves  to 
be  very  convenient  in  the  spring  of  the  year  or  at  any  other 
time  where  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  manure.     The  feed 
racks  may  then  be  taken  out,  thus  leaving  the  building  one 
open   space.     In   making  the   feed   racks   it  is   best   to   con- 
struct them  for  the  double  purpose  of  feeding  both  roughage 
and  grain  or  other  fine  feed.     This   can  be  easily  done  by 
having  the  racks  about  two  feet  or  twenty-eight  inches  wide 
at  the  bottom.     Then  have   two  boards  about  eight   inches 
wide  each  nailed  together  in  the  shape  of  a  wide  angled  V. 
The  angle  should  be  of  at  least  135  degrees.     These  boards 
should  then  be  placed  on  the  center  of  the  bottom  of  the 
rack  so  as  to  form  a  slope  on  either  side  towards  the  outer 
edge.     This  will  be  found  very  helpful  in  keeping  the  grain 
or  other  fine  feed   in  the  outer  edge  of  the  bottom  of  the 
rack.     That  part  of  the  rack  which  is  to  hold  the  rough  feed, 
such  as  hay,   straw  or  corn  fodder,   should  be  built  on  the 
center  of   the  V   shaped   ridge   and   project  upwards   to  the 
height  of  about  three  feet.     They  should  slant  gradually  up- 
wards so  as  to  be  about  two  feet  wide  at  top.    Vertical  slats 
about   four    inches    wide   and   three    inches    apart   should   be 
nailed  on  the  sides.     This  affords  a  very  good  means  of  sup- 
plying the  roughness  to  the  animals  at  their  own  will  and 
at    the    same  time    protecting   their    fleeces   from    chaff   and 
other  foreign  matter.     The  bottom  of  the  feed  racks  should 
be  about  eight  inches  from  the  ground.     The  side  boards  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  grain  trough  should  not  be  more  than 
four  inches  in  height.     This  makes  a  very  good  combination 
feed   rack,   and   is   both   economical   from  the   standpoint   of 
exposure   and  labor. 

In  each  and  every  sheep  barn  there  should  be  one  or  two 


AUG    5    1904 

238  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

warm  rooms,  which  will  be  found  very  convenient  and  use- 
ful at  lambing  time.  These  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  allow 
of  further  division.  A  small  pan  is  especially  desirable  and 
necessary  in  the  case  of  young  ewes  which  do  not  take 
kindly  to  their  lambs.  A  feed  room  should  also  be  provided 
especially  in  a  barn  of  any  size.  It  will  save  much  labor 
at  feeding  time,  as  in  such  a  room  all  of  the  various  kinds 
of  grains  or  other  feed  stuffs  used  may  be  stored.  In  a  small 
barn  such  a  room  is  not  so  necessary. 

Plenty  of  sunlight  and  ample  yard  room  are  very  necessary 
for  the  health  of  the  flock.  This  calls  for  a  large  number 
of  windows  on  the  east,  south  and  west  sides  of  the  sheep 
barn.  The  yards  should  be  located  on  the  south  and  east 
sides  of  the  barn.  All  doors  leading  to  and  from  the  pens 
should  be  low  and  of  good  width.  A  high  step  and  a  narrow 
door  make  a  dangerous  and  costly  combination  to  the  breed- 
ing flock  of  ewes.  Ventilation  is  necessary  for  the  health 
of  the  flock,  but  draughts  must  be  guarded  against,  as  the 
sheep  can  withstand  less  exposure  of  this  kind  than  any 
other  farm  animals. 


-,  COPY  DEL  TO  CAT 

AUG.    5 


Seri 


es 


Part  I. 


Jfifennetfy. 


Correspondence 

Agricultural 

College 

—   S/'oux  City, 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  SERIES. 

PART  I.  NO.  V. 


LECTURES 


ox 


Feeding,  Care  and  Management 
of  Live  StocK 


BY 


WILLARD  J.  KENNEDY,  B.  S.  A. 


Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 
nnd  Vice  Director  of  Experiment 
Station.  Iowa  State  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 


Correspondence  Agricultural  College, 

SIOUX  CITY,   IOWA. 


All   Rights  Reserved. 


LIBRARY  Of  CONGRESS 

Two  Copies  Received 

MAR  30  1904 

Copyright  Entry 


CLASS      A-XXc.  No. 


$  i.  t 

COPY  A 


Copyright,  1904, 

by 
Rural  Text  Book  Company,   Assignee. 


CONTENTS. 


Part  1.     No.  V. 


CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    LIVE    STOCK. 


LECTURES. 


Pages. 

L.XL     Feed,  Care  and  Management  of  Brood  Mare 241-244 

LXII.     Feed,  Care  and  Management  of  Colt  from  Wean- 
ing Time  Until  Ready  for  Work 245-247 

LXIII.     Feed.  Care  and  Management  of  Work  Horses 248-251 

LXIV.     Feed,  Care  and  Management  of  Driving  and  Sad- 
dle   Horses    252-255 

LXV.     Feed,  Care  and  Management  of  the  Stallion 256-259 

LXVI.     Breaking  and  Fitting  Horses  for  Market 260-2GG 

LXVII.     Fattening  Horses  for  Market 267-270 

I,XVIII.     Stabling  Suitable  for  Horses 271-272 

LXIX.     Feed.  Care  and  Management  of  Brood  Sows 273-275 

LXX.     Feed  and  Care  of  Young  Pigs  from  Birth  Until 

Ready  for  Fattening 276-278 

LXXI.     Feed.  Care  and  Selection  of  Stock  Intended  for 

Breeding  Purposes 279-280 

LXXII.     Fattening  Hogs  for  Market 281-284 

L.XXIII.     Preparation  and  Fitting  of  Swine  for  Show  Pur- 
poses   285-287 

LXXIV.     Forage  Crops  for  Swine 288-291 

LXXV.     Prevention  of  Disease  in  Swine 292-295 

T.XXVI.     Pens  and  Sheds  Suitable  for  Pigs__  _  296-302 


1904: 

Rural  Text  Book   Company 
Press. 


LECTURE  LXI. 


FEED,   CARE  AND    MANAGEMENT   OF    BROOD   MARE. 

The  proper  care  and  management  of  the  brood  mare  is 
one  of  the  most  vital  points  to  be  considered  in  the  produc- 
tion of  horses,  so  much  of  the  success  or  failure  is  due  to 
this  part  of  the  work.  A  careful  study  of  the  methods  prac- 
ticed on  the  most  successful  horse  farms  reveals  that  al- 
though there  may  be  some  minor  points  of  difference,  there 
are  certain  well  denned  rules  which  must  be  adhered  to  if 
the  best  results  are  to  be  expected. 

It  is  universally  recognized  that  nothing  but  mature 
mares  should  be  used  if  good,  strong  colts  are  to  be  reared. 
Another  point  is  the  importance  of  exercise.  This  seems  to 
be  one  of  the  most  essential  features  in  the  estimation  of 
most  successful  breeders.  This  may  be  accomplished  by 
allowing  the  mares  to  remain  out  of  doors  most  of  the  day 
during  the  wrinter  season  and  all  of  the  time  when  the 
weather  is  mild  and  favorable.  In  those  sections  of  the 
country  where  the  winters  are  not  too  severe  and  the 
ground  is  not  covered  with  snow,  grazing  for  part  of  their 
ration  serves  an  excellent  means  of  securing  the  much 
needed  exercise.  Where  some  care  is  used  in  the  fall  of 
the  year  in  not  allowing  the  pastures  to  be  too  closely 
grazed,  thus  leaving  an  abundance  of  grass,  it  will  provide 
much  feed  of  the  very  best  kind  during  the  winter  months. 
Grass,  cured  in  this  way,  is  better  than  hay,  as  it  contains 
just  as  much  nourishment  and  in  addition  has  a  most  favora- 
ble influence  on  the  digestive  system.  Where  such  grass 
cannot  be  had  some  corn  fodder  should  be  scattered  over 
the  pasture  some  distance  from  the  buildings  to  encourage 
and  secure  the  desired  exercise. 

The  above  method  is  especially  desirable  on  farms 
where  horse  breeding  is  practiced  on  such  an  extensive  scale 
as  to  make  it  impossible  to  secure  exercise  in  any  other  way. 
On  most  farms  such  a  method  is  not  necessary,  as  the  same 
end  may  be  secured  by  means  of  light  work.  The  belief  held 


242  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

by  some  that  work  is  injurious  to  the  brood  mare  is  wrong. 
Light,  regular  work  is  one  of  the  very  best  things  for  such 
an  animal.  Heavy,  irregular  work,  especially  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  pregnancy,  must  be  avoided,  else  serious  results 
may  be  the  result.  All  good  horse  breeders  recommend  light 
work  wherever  it  is  at  all  practicable. 

In  the  largest  and  best  established  horse  breeding  dis- 
tricts of  France  the  majority  of  the  horses  are  produced  by 
small  farmers  who  do  all  their  work  with  their  brood  mares. 
The  colts  are  sold  when  about  twelve  months  old  to  the 
dealers,  who  mature  and  sell  them  for  breeding  purposes  to 
other  countries.  In  this  way  they  claim  to  be  able  to  pro- 
duce the  very  highest  type  of  horses.  The  mothers  always 
have  sufficient  exercise,  thus,  as  a  result,  strong,  healthy 
foals  are  secured,  which  always  make  much  better  horses 
than  those  reared  from  dams  which  have  been  irregularly 
exercised  and  overfed. 

In  most  sections  of  the  country  spring  foals  are  reared. 
The  fall  foal  seems  to  be  the  exception,  thus  in  our  treat- 
ment of  the  feed  and  care  of  the  dam  it  will  be  for  those 
which  rear  spring  foals  unless  otherwise  mentioned.  Where 
fall  foals  are  reared  it  is  very  difficult  to  feed  the  mother 
so  as  to  have  a  liberal  supply  of  milk.  Another  disadvan- 
tage in  rearing  fall  foals  is  the  increased  trouble  during  the 
winter  months,  caused  by  teething. 

Where  spring  foals  are  to  be  reared  the  mother  should 
be  liberally  fed  during  the  winter  months.  The  ration  should 
be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  keep  the  system  in  a  good,  cool, 
healthy  condition.  This  calls  for  more  or  less  nitrogenous 
feed  stuffs,  such  as  some  bright,  pure  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
for  part  of  the  roughness,  and  oats  and  bran  for  the  grain 
part  of  the  ration.  A  strictly  corn  or  other  carbonaceous  or 
heat  producing  diet  must  be  avoided.  Where  too  much  corn 
is  fed  the  mother  usually  becomes  very  fleshy  and  plethoric. 
As  a  result,  at  foaling  time  the  mother  will  be  more  or  less 
troubled  with  inflammation  and  the  colt  will  be  weak  and 
have  little  or  no  use  of  its  limbs. 

Feed  of  a  succulent  nature  should  be  supplied  in  some 
form.  Where  roots  can  be  had  they  rank  first.  Corn  silage 
when  fed  in  limited  quantities  also  gives  good  results,  but 
it  must  be  fed  with  care  else  the  same  difficulties  will  be 
experienced  as  when  too  much  corn  is  fed.  Where  the  foal 
is  dropped  before  the  grass  season  has  arrived,  other  feed 


CARE  OF  BROOD  MARE.  243 

stuffs  of  a  succulent  nature  must  be  provided.  For  rough- 
ness either  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  will  answer  a  good  purpose, 
as  they  are  both  conducive  to  milk  production.  For  con- 
centrates, crushed  oats  and  bran  are  good.  A  mash  of  some 
kind  should  be  fed  every  evening.  This  can  be  made  by 
using  bran  and  crushed  oats,  equal  parts  by  weight,  and 
steaming  for  about  half  an  hour  or  one  hour.  In  some  in- 
stances skim  milk  has  been  added  to  the  mash  with  good 
results.  The  main  object  should  be  to  supply  an  abundance 
of  food  adapted  to  milk  production.  Great  care  must  also 
be  exercised  to  feed  the  mother  very  regularly  and  on  the 
same  kind  of  feed  stuffs,  so  as  to  avoid  any  bowel  trouble 
in  the  foal. 

When  the  grass  season  arrives  nothing  is  better  than 
plenty  of  good,  fresh  grass.  It  is  one  of  the  very  best  aids 
to  healthy  and  abundant  nutrition  for  both  mare  and  foal. 

When  mares  are  worked  while  suckling  it  is  better  that 
the  foal  should  be  left  in  the  stable  and  that  the  mare  be 
taken  to  the  foal  for  its  nourishment  at  least  three  times 
during  the  day.  Ample  time  should  be  given  for  her  to 
cool  off  thoroughly  before  the  foal  has  access  to  her,  as 
otherwise  a  gorge  of  the  overheated  milk  may  produce  serious 
disturbance  in  the  digestive  organs  of  the  foal.  Some  farm- 
ers, however,  find  little  inconvenience  from  permitting  the 
foals,  especially  when  quite  young,  to  accompany  the  dams 
to  the  field  and  follow  them  while  at  their  work.  This  gives 
them  an  opportunity  to  empty  the  udder  of  the  mare  as  often 
as  it  may  be  deemed  advisable,  and  eliminates  all  danger 
from  over-gorging  that  occurs  when  the  mare  and  foal  are 
separated.  Generally  a  mare  which  is  liberally  fed  will  sup- 
ply a  sufficient  amount  of  nourishment  for  the  foal  during 
the  first  few  months  of  its  existence.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  milk  of  the  mother  is  not  sufficient  to  promote  the 
proper  growth  and  development  of  the  foal.  In  some  in- 
stances, too,  the  mother  may  die,  thus  the  colt  will  have  to 
be  reared  by  other  means  than  nature's  way.  When  the  colt 
requires  additional  food  or  has  to  be  reared  by  hand,  cows' 
milk  will  be  found  to  be  the  best  possible  adjunct  or  substi- 
tute for  the  milk  of  the  dam.  The  cow's  milk  should  be 
sweetened  a  little  at  first,  as  the  milk  of  the  mare  is  sweeter 
than  that  of  the  cow.  The  colt  can  soon  be  taught  to  drink 
milk.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  to  prevent  overfeeding, 
as  this  is  the  greatest  danger  in  the  hand  rearing  of  colts. 


244  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

A  half  pint  is  sufficient  at  first,  but  it  should  be  fed  at  least 
six  times  per  day.  Gradually  increase  the  amount  as  the  colt 
grows  older.  Some  oats  and  grass  should  also  be  given. 
When  the  colt  is  about  two  months  old,  skim  milk  should  be 
substituted  for  the  fresh  milk.  Some  oil  meal  or  flaxseed 
meal  to  the  amount  of  about  one  pint  per  day  should  be  fed 
in  conjunction  to  prevent  constipation.  It  will  also  be  very 
helpful  in  developing  the  frame  of  the  colt.  Either  whole 
or  skim  milk  can  be  profitably  fed  to  any  colt  which  is  thin 
in  flesh,  as  such  an  animal  will  not  otherwise  do  well  during 
the  first  winter. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  teach  the  colt  to  eat  grain 
before  weaning.  This  will  make  the  weaning  period  a  much 
less  severe  one  on  the  colt.  The  best  age  to  wean  the  colt 
is  at  about  five  or  six  months,  depending  on  the  condition 
of  the  dam  and  the  colt.  Generally  speaking,  a  colt  should 
never  be  allowed  to  suckle  longer  than  six  months.  In  fact, 
five  months  seems  to  be  sufficient. 

There  are  various  methods  of  weaning  the  colt.  One 
very  commonly  practiced  and  one  which  gives  good  results 
is  to  tie  the  colt  in  an  adjoining  stall  from  the  dam  with 
the  partition  low  or  so  open  that  they  can  see  each  other, 
thus  preventing  unnecessary  fretting  and  worrying  on  the 
part  of  both  animals.  The  ration  of  the  mare  should  be 
reduced  and  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  non-productive  of 
milk.  A  pound  of  Epsom  salts  fed  in  the  grain  will  have 
a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  system.  When  the  mare's  udder 
becomes  so  full  as  to  cause  her  uneasiness,  a  part  of  the 
milk  should  be  drawn  off,  but  she  should  not  be  milked  dry. 
This  should  be  done  by  hand,  as  such  milk  is  not  good  for 
the  colt.  It  will  also  be  found  much  easier  to  dry  off  the 
mare  when  the  colt  is  not  allowed  to  suckle.  After  weaning, 
the  mare  and  the  colt  should  be  kept  apart.  The  colt  may 
be  fed  skim  milk  after  weaning  to  good  advantage.  Care 
must  be  taken,  however,  where  the  colt  is  fed  by  hand,  to 
avoid  the  common  practice  of  making  too  much  of  a  pet  of 
the  colt  and  by  so  doing  spoil  it  in  after  years. 


LECTURE  LXII. 


FEED,    CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    COLT    FROM 
WEANING    TIME    UNTIL    READY    FOR   WORK. 

The  usefulness  and  value  of  a  horse  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  feed,  care  and  management  the  colt  receives 
from  weaning  time  until  ready  for  work.  The  greatest  of 
care  and  the  best  of  judgment  should  be  exercised  in  the 
selection  of  the  feed  stuffs,  and  the  administration  of  the 
same;  also  in  the  management  of  the  youngster.  A  very 
common  mistake  is  made  in  trying  to  mature  a  young  animal 
too  soon.  By  so  doing,  the  proper  development  of  both  bone 
and  muscle  is  very  often  checked.  In  growing  the  young 
animal  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  uniform  and  proper 
development  of  all  the  parts.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
bone  and  the  muscle.  The  young  animal  should  never  be 
in  high  flesh,  just  in  good  growing  condition. 

After  weaning  skimmed  milk  may  be  given  to  the  colt, 
especially  if  it  is  not  in  good  condition  to  enter  the  winter. 
Clean,  sound  oats,  ground  or  unground,  constitute  the  best 
of  all  grain  foods  for  the  colt.  It  is  better  as  a  general  rule 
to  have  the  oats  ground  at  first.  During  the  winter  months 
a  ration  of  three  parts  ground  oats  and  one  part  corn  meal 
will  give  very  good  results.  A  little  oil  meal  can  also  be 
added  to  the  ration  to  good  advantage.  Do  not  feed  too 
sparingly  of  the  above  ration.  More  colts  are  ruined  by 
underfeeding  and  lack  of  exercise  than  by  overfeeding  when 
combined  with  an  abundance  of  exercise.  It  is  very  easy 
to  ruin  a  colt  by  too  liberal  grain  feeding  if  it  is  not  given 
plenty  of  exercise. 

The  ration  must  be  such  as  to  produce  bone  and  muscle, 
and  that  is  why  oats  and  oil  meal  are  so  valuable.  A  sole 
corn  ration  does  not  contain  enough  protein  and  ash  for 
the  best  results.  For  roughness  nothing  is  better  than 
alfalfa,  clover,  or  oat  hay.  Dusty  clover  hay  should  never 
be  fed,  as  it  is  likely  to  cause  wind  trouble.  Some  corn 
fodder,  prairie  or  timothy  hay  can  always  be  fed  to  advan- 


246  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

tage  during  the  first  winter.  Corn  silage,  when  fed  in  con- 
junction with  other  feed  stuffs  which  are  rich  in  nitrogenous 
matter,  will  be  very  helpful.  Some  roots,  especially  carrots, 
are  an  excellent  adjunct  to  the  colt's  ration  during  the  win- 
ter months.  During  the  first  winter  the  colt  should  be 
kept  in  a  box  stall  during  the  night  and  allowed  plenty  of 
out  of  door  exercise  during  the  day,  especially  when  the 
weather  is  fine. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of 
open  air  exercise  as  being  absolutely  essential  to  a  healthy, 
symmetrical  development  of  bone,  muscle,  and  the  vital 
organs.  Practical  breeders  have  for  a  long  time  recognized 
the  value  of  allowing  the  liberally  fed  colt  to  rough  it  to  a 
considerable  extent,  knowing  that  he  always  developed  into 
a  much  hardier  horse.  Many  a  good  colt  by  too  high  feed- 
ing and  close  confinement  has  grown  up  into  an  unsound 
"weedy"  horse.  The  horse  is  different  from  most  animals  in 
that  its  future  usefulness  in  no  small  measure  is  determined 
by  its  hardiness  and  endurance.  These  necessary  requisites 
cannot  be  secured  without  plenty  of  bone  and  muscle  form- 
ing food,  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  exercise.  The  long  haired, 
coarse  boned  colt  invariably  grows  into  the  high  priced  horse. 
On  the  other  hand  the  sleek  coated,  fat  bodied  colt  very 
seldom  develops  into  anything  that  is  valuable  and  credit- 
able as  a  mature  animal. 

Liberal  feeding  is  necessary,  and  especially  in  those 
feed  stuffs  which  are  rich  in  bone  and  muscle  producing 
material.  This,  combined  with  an  abundance  of  exercise, 
are  two  of  the  very  most  important  essentials  in  the  care 
and  management  of  the  colt. 

During  the  summer  months,  while  the  pastures  are  good, 
nothing  in  the  way  of  additional  feed  will  be  necessary. 
They  should  be  supplied  with  salt  at  all  times  and  have  free 
access  to  pure  water  at  all  times.  During  the  hot  weather 
and  fly  season,  some  kind  of  protection  must  be  provided.  A 
grove  of  trees  or  a  shed  or  some  other  structure  will  serve 
an  excellent  purpose. 

During  periods  of  drought  when  the  supply  of  grass  is 
scant,  some  additional  feed  should  be  fed.  Forage  crops 
may  be  made  to  answer  an  excellent  purpose,  especially 
when  green  oats,  barley,  clover,  alfalfa,  or  sweet  corn  can 
be  supplied.  A  light  ration  of  grain  will  usually  be  found  the 
best  supplement  in  this  connection.  Oats  stand  at  the  very 
top  for  this  puropse. 


CARE  OF  COLT.  247 

During  the  second  winter  the  colt  should  receive  much 
the  same  treatment  and  feed  as  during  the  first  winter.  More 
bulky  feed  can  be  fed  to  good  advantage.  The  grain  ration 
should  be  liberal  and  composed  largely  of  those  feed  stuffs 
which  are  conducive  to  growth  and  bone  production. 

Draft  colts  of  good  size  should  be  broken  to  work. 
Light  work  will  be  more  beneficial  than  harmful  for  such 
animals.  During  the  spring  and  summer  they  may  also  do 
some  light  work.  They  can  be  used  to  good  advantage, 
where  carefully  handled,  to  rest  the  brood  mare  from  time 
to  time.  In  this  way  they  can  be  made  to  earn  their  keep. 
Light  work  is  always  beneficial  for  a  colt  of  this  age,  pro- 
viding they  are  carefully  handled. 

There  are  a  great  many  little  things  which  must  receive 
careful  attention  in  the  management  of  the  colt.  The  pre- 
vention of  lice  is  a  most  vital  point.  Many  colts  are  very 
seriously  checked  in  their  development,  due  to  the  presence 
of  lice.  The  indications  of  lice  are  rubbing  against  stall, 
manger,  fence,  or  some  other  obstacle,  thinness  in  the  colt, 
when  a  colt  ceases  to  do  well,  hair  falling  off  or  being 
rubbed  off.  There  are  several  methods  of  treating  a  colt 
troubled  with  lice.  They  must  be  liberally  fed  on  corn,  oats, 
bran,  and  hay.  There  are  several  kinds  of  powder  recom- 
mended to  kill  lice.  Many  of  them  are  very  good  and  will 
give  immediate  relief.  One  of  the  best  and  surest  remedies 
is  an  application  of  gasoline  put  on  a  whisk  broom  or  brush 
and  thoroughly  rubbed  through  the  hair  on  all  parts  of  the 
body,  especially  the  neck,  withers  and  back.  Kerosene  and 
soft  soap  emulsion  or  Persian  insect  powder  applied  in  the 
same  manner  are  also  good.  No  colt  will  thrive  and  make 
good  growth  while  troubled  with  lice. 

The  teeth  should  also  be  given  proper  care,  especially 
at  teething  time.  Loose  teeth  should  be  removed. 

Grooming  is  another  point  which  will  prove  helpful.  It 
is  especially  valuable  in  case  of  colts  which  have  not  ample 
opportunity  for  exercise.  It  is  also  very  important  that  the 
colt  should  be  properly  halter  broken,  as  outlined  in  the 
lecture  on  this  subject. 

The  feet  should  also  be  properly  cared  for.  They  must 
not  be  allowed  to  grow  out  too  long,  or  become  uneven  in 
shape.  Many  otherwise  good  colts  are  ruined  by  allowing 
the  inside  of  hoof  or  outside  to  become  much  larger  than 
the  corresponding  side.  Crooked  legs  are  the  result. 


LECTURE  LXIII. 


FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  WORK  HORSES. 

The  feed,  care  and  management  of  the  work  horse  is  a 
very  important  subject.  It  concerns  a  very  large  number 
of  peoples.  One  man  will  take  a  horse  thin  in  flesh,  work  it 
hard  and  have  the  horse  gain  in  flesh  on  very  much  less  feed 
than  it  had  before.  Another  man  will  take  a  horse  in  the 
height  of  condition  of  flesh  and  fit  for  work,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  horse  is  seen  to  be  dull  and  losing  flesh,  notwith- 
standing that  it  had  all  the  grain  and  hay  it  could  consume. 
This  fact  is  of  great  significance  and  opens  up  a  field  for 
investigation.  It  shows  that  it  is  not  so  much  the  amount 
of  feed  given,  as  it  is  the  properly  balanced  ration  and  the 
regularity  with  which  the  feeding  is  done,  together  with  the 
manner  of  the  handling.  All  of  these  points  are  worthy  of 
most  careful  consideration. 

The  average  work  horse  is  a  hard  animal  to  properly 
care  for  on  account  of  the  irregularity  of  his  work.  During 
certain  seasons  of  the  year  he  is  taxed  to  his  utmost  by  real 
hard  work.  At  other  times  work  of  a  medium  nature  is 
demanded,  and  at  certain  times  he  has  little  or  nothing  to 
do,  in  fact  may  be  idle.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  farm 
work  horse.  These  different  changes  and  demands  require 
special  care  and  feed  for  the  maintenance  of  good  health, 
flesh  and  endurance.  A  horse  at  real  hard  work  must  be  more 
liberally  fed,  and  fed  on  a  ration  differing  in  composition 
and  preparation  from  the  animal  that  is  at  light  work  or 
idle.  Thus  we  can  readily  see  the  necessity  of  making  a 
very  careful  study  of  the  animal  and  its  needs  at  all  times. 

A  careful  study  of  feeding  tests  and  rations  reveals  the 
fact  that  a  horse  at  real  hard  work  requires  a  ration  of  a 
nitrogenous  nature  to  supply  the  demand  upon  the  system. 
Such  a  horse  must  also  be  fed  more  grain  and  less  roughage 
than  the  horse  at  lighter  work.  While  the  grinding  of  grain 
and  the  cutting  or  chaffing  of  the  roughage  is  not  advisable 
in  feeding  horses  under  ordinary  conditions,  it  may  oftentimes 


(  ARE  OF  WORK  HORSES.  249 

be  very  beneficial  in  the  case  of  animals  at  real  hard  work. 
The  ration  may  be  composed  of  various  kinds  of  grain,  such 
as  corn,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  shorts,  bran,  molasses,  beans, 
oil  meal,  gluten  feed,  and  a  variety  of  other  feed  stuffs.  Too 
much  corn  should  not  be  fed,  as  it  is  claimed  to  burn  out 
the  system  in  a  short  period  of  time.  In  many  places  where 
horses  are  worked  very  hard  the  ration  is  largely  oats  and 
shorts,  with  some  wheat,  barley,  or  corn  added.  For  rough- 
ness timothy,  clover  and  mixed  hay  are  used.  In  some  in- 
stances millet,  sorghum  and  oat  hay  are  used  quite  exten- 
sively. Firms  owning  large  numbers  of  horses  which  are 
worked  very  hard  usually  grind  all  the  grain,  cut  the  rough- 
age, then  moisten  it  and  mix  the  grain  in  and  feed  both  at 
the  same  time.  This  method  seems  to  save  the  horse  some 
labor.  Various  methods  are  followed  regarding  the  number 
of  times  the  animals  are  fed.  Some  feed  five  and  six  times 
per  day.  Generally  the  animals  are  fed  but  three  times  per 
day.  The  watering  is  usually  done  before  feeding  and  no 
water  is  given  for  at  least  two  hours  after  feeding.  This 
method  seems  to  favor  more  complete  digestion  of  feed. 

Horses  at  medium  work  do  not  require  such  liberal 
feeding.  Neither  do  they  require  so  much  nitrogenous  feed, 
thus  cheaper  feeds  may  be  used  to  good  advantage.  There 
is  no  necessity  for  grinding  the  grain  or  cutting  the  rough- 
ness fed,  as  they  have  plenty  of  time  to  do  this  work  them- 
selves. They  may  be  fed  more  corn  and  barley,  which  are 
usually  much  cheaper  feeds  than  oats,  shorts,  and  other 
nitrogenous  feed  stuffs.  For  roughness,  timothy,  clover, 
mixed  hay,  sorghum,  millet,  oat  hay  and  small  quantities 
of  the  various  kinds  of  straws  may  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage. Where  straw  is  used  to  any  extent  more  of  the  grain 
must  be  fed.  Regarding  the  quantity  it  will  depend  on  the 
size  of  the  horse  and  the  amount  of  labor  required.  Horses 
at  medium  work  should  receive  about  one  pound  of  grain 
and  one  pound  of  hay  for  every  one  hundred  pounds  live 
weight  of  the  animal.  This  may  have  to  be  modified  to 
some  extent  with  different  horses.  Some  horses,  on  account 
of  their  conformation,  require  less  feed  than  others.  Horses 
which  are  idle  part  of  the  time  should  be  fed  and  handled 
with  much  care.  They  must  be  maintained  as  economically 
as  possible  while  not  at  work.  They  do  not  require  very 
much  nitrogenous  food.  They  should  always  be  fed  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  feed  to  keep  them  in  real  good  flesh.  Where 


250  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

horses  are  doing  little  or  no  work,  the  ration  may  be  cheap- 
ened in  several  ways.  In  some  instances  the  grain  ration  is 
almost  solely  withheld  and  the  same  kind  and  amount  of 
roughage  is  fed  as  when  at  work.  In  other  instances  part 
of  the  grain  is  fed  in  conjunction  with  straw  or  some  other 
cheap  kind  of  roughage.  This  in  many  ways  is  the  better 
method,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  grain  part  of  the  ration, 
seems  to  furnish  more  bottom  and  fettle  in  the  animal,  thus- 
it  will  be  in  much  better  form  for  work  when  such  is  needed. 
It  is  a  fatal  mistake  to  starve  a  horse  while  idle  and  then- 
suddenly  increase  his  grain  ration  when  the  work  season 
arrives.  The  increase  should  be  made  several  weeks  in 
advance,  and  better  still,  to  feed  some  grain  all  the  time. 

Idle  horses  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  stable,, 
but  should  be  given  exercise.  Where  light  work  cannot  be 
had,  they  should  be  allowed  the  run  of  an  open  lot.  They 
will  then  be  in  a  much  better  condition  to  withstand  work 
when  the  time  arrives. 

There  are  certain  general  points  which  apply  to  all 
classes  of  horses.  For  instance,  during  the  winter  season 
some  succulent  feed  should  be  supplied  to  keep  the  digestive 
system  in  good  condition.  Roots,  especially  carrots,  serve  an 
excellent  purpose.  Bran  mash  is  also  good.  Steamed  or 
boiled  grain  to  which  has  been  added  a  little  flaxseed  is  one 
of  the  very  best  regulators  that  can  be  fed.  It  should  be 
supplied  about  twice  per  week. 

The  feet  must  also  receive  attention.  They  should  be 
kept  trimmed  from  time  to  time.  Horses  which  are  at  hard 
work  on  pavements  should  have  their  feet  packed  so  as  to 
soften  the  hoof  and  eliminate  any  fever  or  inflammation. 
This  is  done  by  using  steamed  bran  or  shorts  which  is 
packed  in  the  bottom  of  the  hoof  at  least  twice  per  week, 
and  in  some  cases  every  night.  It  is  very  beneficial  to  the 
feet.  Grooming  should  never  be  neglected,  as  it  keeps  the 
skin  and  hair  in  good  condition,  thus  causes  much  better 
circulation  of  the  blood;  consequently  better  health. 

The  teeth  should  be  examined  at  least  twice  a  year. 
Any  sharp  projections  on  the  grinders  should  be  removed  by 
means  of  a  rasp  made  for  this  purpose.  Many  horses  suffer 
a  great  deal  due  to  sharp  projections  on  the  teeth.  The 
removal  of  the  same  by  means  of  a  file  or  rasp  is  called 
"floating."  Many  horses  which  are  thin  and  otherwise  out 
of  condition  are  thus  troubled.  The  front  teeth  sometimes 


CARE  OF  WORK  HORSES.  251 

become  too  long  and  slanting,  thus  need  attention.  Water 
should  always  be  given  before  feeding  and  none  should  be 
given  for  at  least  two  hours  after  feeding.  The  hay  or 
roughage  should  be  fed  first,  then  the  grain  part  of  the 
ration.  The  harness  should  always  be  properly  fitted  to 
the  horse.  Large  collars  or  too  small  collars  should  never 
be  used.  During  warm  weather  the  harness,  and  especially 
the  collars,  should  be  kept  very  clean.  They  should  be 
scraped  and  washed  every  evening  to  prevent  sore  shoulders. 
This  is  an  important  point,  especially  with  young  horses. 


LECTURE  LXIV. 


FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE   DRIVING  AND 
SADDLE   HORSES. 

The  driving  or  saddle  horse  is  used  almost  solely  for 
pleasure  purposes.  This  fact  makes  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  this  class  of  animals  very  difficult  to  control.  It  is 
very  seldom  that  animals  of  this  class  receive  regular  exer- 
cise. When  the  weather  is  fine  and  the  roads  are  good,  they 
are  usually  worked  hard.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
weather  is  unfavorable  they  are  oftentimes  idle  a  great  deal 
of  the  time.  Another  point  which  makes  their  care  difficult 
is  the  fact  that  their  labor  is  usually  performed  during  a 
couple  of  hours  of  the  day,  and  generally  of  a  severe  nature 
during  this  short  period  of  time.  All  of  these  things  are 
unnatural,  thus  very  hard  on  the  animal.  Animals  to  with- 
stand such  treatment  must  receive  peculiar  feed  and  care. 
In  many  instances  it  is  very  hard  to  exercise  such  an  animal 
when  they  are  not  needed  for  pleasure  purposes.  This  is 
especially  true  in  cities  and  towns,  where  they  are  confined 
to  the  stable  most  of  the  year.  The  feet  need  special  care, 
also. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  such  an  animal  should  have  a 
roomy  box  stall  which  has  a  ground  floor.  This  will  be 
helpful  in  supplying  some  exercise  and  the  ground  floor  will 
be  much  easier  on  the  feet  and  legs.  This  is  a  most  import- 
ant point.  If  this  stall  can  open  into  an  open  lot,  so  much 
the  better.  The  horse  should  then  be  allowed  a  few  hours 
out  in  the  open  lot  every  day  when  the  weather  is  at  all 
favorable.  This  will  be  very  helpful  and  will  have  very 
strong  tendency  to  increase  and  lengthen  his  period  of  use- 
fulness. No  horse  can  be  confined  to  a  small  stall  in  the 
stable  for  any  length  of  time  and  retain  its  vigor  and  sound- 
ness. Imprisonment  of  this  kind  will  ruin  any  animal. 

Where  an  exercising  lot  can  be  had,  it  should  be  long 
and  rather  narrow,  so  as  to  prevent  the  horse  from  running 
in  a  circle,  which  so  often  results  in  a  slip  or  a  fall,  which 


CARE  OF  LIGHT  HORSES.  253 

may  prove  to  be  very  injurious  to  the  animal.  With  a  long 
lot  the  animal  will  have  a  chance  to  extend  itself,  and  when 
near  the  end  of  the  lot  will  stop  with  its  feet  under  it,  which 
is  not  so  liable  to  injure  it  as  if  running  in  a  circle.  This 
is  an  important  feature  of  the  exercising  lot. 

The  ration  of  the  driving  horse  should  be  different  from 
that  of  the  average  work  horse.  This  is  due  in  a  large  meas- 
ure to  the  peculiar  demands  of  such  an  animal.  They  should 
be  fed  much  less  roughage  in  proportion  to  their  size  than 
horses  at  ordinary  work.  The  roughage  should  also  be  of  a 
different  nature.  The  driving  or  saddle  horse  must  have 
plenty  of  endurance,  thus  must  be  fed  roughage  which  will 
not  in  any  way  cause  looseness  of  the  digestive  system,  or 
"washiness,"  as  it  is  generally  known.  In  this  respect  timo- 
thy hay  seems  to  be  the  very  best  kind  of  roughness  for  the 
driving  horse.  Mixed  hay  does  fairly  well  where  animals 
have  very  light  work.  Clover  hay,  when  dusty,  is  very  liable 
to  cause  wind  trouble.  When  good  pure  clover  hay  is  fed, 
it  is  too  loosening,  thus  animals  fed  on  this  kind  of  a  ration 
are  soft  and  "washy."  Millet  may  be  fed  in  very  small 
quantities.  Good  pure  oat  or  barley  straw  may  oftentimes 
be  used  in  small  quantities. 

For  grain  nothing  is  equal  to  good  clean  heavy  oats. 
Other  feed  stuffs  may  be  equal  as  heat  and  flesh  producers, 
but  they  do  not  possess  the  stimulating  qualities  which  are 
found  in  oats.  This  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  a  specific  albu- 
minoid which  is  found  only  in  the  oat  grain.  It  gives  the 
horse  his  fire  and  snap  which  is  so  desirable  in  the  saddle 
or  driving  animal.  Oats  should  form  the  major  part  of  the 
ration.  Some  other  feed  stuffs  can  usually  be  added  to  the 
oat  ration  and  by  so  doing  reduce  the  cost  of  the  grain  ration. 
Some  bran,  shorts,  corn,  gluten  feed,  barley,  wheat  and  a 
great  variety  of  other  feed  stuffs  might  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection.  Oats  should  always  constitute  at  least  one-half 
and  better  still  two-thirds  of  the  ration  fed.  For  instance, 
a  ration  of  three  parts  oats,  two  parts  corn  and  one  part  of 
either  bran,  shorts  or  gluten  feed  will  give  good  results. 
Regarding  the  amount  of  roughness  and  grain  to  be  fed,  it 
will  vary  some,  depending  on  the  amount  of  labor  to  be  per- 
formed. It  is  not  best  to  feed  over  ten  or  twelve  pounds 
of  hay  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  of  grain  to  a  horse 
which  has  regular  work. 


954  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

For  horses  which  have  light  work  about  the  same 
amount  of  roughness  and  from  six  to  ten  pounds  of  grain. 
This  will  have  to  be  regulated  by  the  amount  of  labor  per- 
formed. It  is  not  necessary  to  cut  the  fodder  or  grind  the 
grain  for  horses  which  have  good  teeth  and  plenty  of  time  to 
feed.  Steamed  feed  or  a  mash  of  some  kind  should  be  fed 
at  least  twice  a  week. 

Roots,  during  the  winter  season,  and  some  green  feed 
during  the  summer  months,  should  be  supplied.  They  will 
iiave  a  favorable  influence  on  the  health  of  the  animal. 

Another  important  point  is  the  watering  of  this  class  of 
animals.  They  should  always  be  watered  before  being  fed 
grain  and  should  not  receive  any  for  at  least  two  hours  after 
feeding.  It  is  not  best  to  give  driving  horses  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water  at  one  time  especially  just  preceding  a  drive, 
as  it  is  very  apt  to  affect  the  digestive  system  and  may  cause 
the  animal  to  scour.  The  horse  which  is  required  to  make  a 
long  drive  should  receive  water  every  two  hours,  especially 
during  hot  weather.  Little  and  often  is  a  good  rule  to  adopt 
in  this  connection.  Water  will  never  injure  a  horse,  no 
matter  how  warm  the  animal  may  be,  providing  it  is  given 
in  small  quantities  and  slowly. 

Salt  should  be  supplied  at  all  times.  It  should  not  be 
added  to  the  grain  ration.  A  better  method  is  to  have  it 
in  a  separate  box.  Either  rock  salt  or  the  common  salt 
may  be  used. 

The  teeth  should  always  be  examined  at  least  twice  a 
year.  Any  sharp  projections  on  the  outer  edges  of  the 
molars  should  be  removed  by  means  of  a  rasp  or  file  for  this 
purpose.  The  incisors  or  front  teeth  should  be  kept  short 
and  even.  This  will  aid  very  much  in  the  proper  mastication 
of  the  feed.  Many  thin  horses  consume  plenty  of  feed,  but 
on  account  of  poor  teeth  cannot  utilize  the  proper  amount 
of  the  same. 

The  appearance  of  the  saddle  or  driving  horse  depends 
in  a  considerable  measure  on  the  condition  of  the  skin,  hair, 
tail,  and  mane.  A  well  groomed  horse  always  looks  well. 
This  is  really  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  the  man- 
agement of  this  class  of  animals.  Too  much  care  and  atten- 
tion cannot  be  given  to  the  matter  of  grooming.  The  skin 
should  be  soft,  the  hair  fine,  soft  and  short.  The  mane  and 
tail  fluffy,  ears  free  from  long  hair,  and  the  legs  to  the 
knees  and  hocks  clipped  in  such  a  manner  as  to  present  the 


CARE  OF  LIGHT  HORSES.  255 

appearance  of  always  being  free  from  long  hair.  The  hoofs 
should  be  kept  clean,  well  oiled,  and  polished  occasionally. 

These  things  add  as  much  to  the  appearance  of  the 
horse  as  neat,  well  pressed  clothes,  clean  linen,  neatly  black- 
ened shoes  to  the  appearance  of  the  well  groomed  man. 

During  cold  weather  a  large,  warm  blanket  will  aid  very 
much  in  keeping  the  hair  short  and  soft.  When  the  weather 
is  warm  a  light  cover  should  also  be  used  to  keep  the  hair 
nice  and  at  the  same  time  it  serves  as  a  means  of  protection 
in  fly  season.  The  curry  comb  should  not  be  used  except 
to  clean  the  brush  from  time  to  time.  The  brush  alone 
should  be  used  to  clean  the  hair.  The  mane  and  tail  should 
be  combed  out  well  with  a  comb  for  this  purpose,  not  a  curry 
comb,  as  it  will  cut  the  hair.  A  piece  of  soft  flannel  should 
be  used  to  put  on  the  finishing  touches.  Some  prefer  a 
chamois  skin  for  this  purpose. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  attendant  should  be  careful 
in  all  the  little  details.  Kindness  in  every  detail  should  pre- 
vail, as  the  temperament  and  disposition  of  the  animal  add 
very  much  to  its  value. 


LECTURE  LXV. 


FEED,    CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    STALLION. 

The  proper  feeding,  care  and  management  of  the  stallion 
is  a  most  vital  point.  Perhaps  more  mistakes  are  made  in 
this  connection  than  in  any  other  kind  of  horse  management. 

One  of  the  most  frequent  mistakes  made  by  inexperi- 
enced persons,  and  even  by  many  who  think  that  they  know 
all  about  this  subject,  is  the  endeavor  to  keep  the  stallion 
in  fine  show  condition  all  the  time,  and  especially  at  the 
opening  of  the  breeding  season.  To  this  end  drugs  and  nos- 
trums are  oftentimes  used.  The  horse  is  kept  carefully 
housed  and  closely  blanketed;  he  is  loaded  with  fat;  his 
muscles  become  soft  and  flabby  for  want  of  exercise,  and 
although  he  may  come  at  the  beginning  of  the  season  appar- 
ently in  the  pink  of  show  yard  condition,  he  is  not  nearly 
so  well  fitted  for  service  in  the  stud  as  he  would  have  been 
had  this  fitting  been  entirely  eliminated. 

One  of  the  very  first  principles  in  the  preparation  of  the 
stallion  is  that  a  healthy  horse  does  not  require  any  medi- 
cine whatever  to  put  him  in  condition  for  the  stud.  The 
whole  secret  of  successful  preparation  lies  in  a  few  words. 
Let  him  be  well  and  regularly  fed  on  healthy,  nutritious 
food,  with  plenty  of  exercise  every  day  to  keep  his  muscles 
firm  and  hard,  with  plenty  of  grooming  so  that  his  coat  may 
present  a  fine  appearance.  The  skin  should  be  kept  thor- 
oughly clean  by  occasional  washing  and  frequent  brushing  and 
grooming.  The  mane  and  tail  should  be  kept  clean  and  thor- 
oughly brushed  out.  If  very  dirty,  use  soap  in  the  cleaning 
process;  and  when  this  is  properly  attended  to  there  will  be 
but  little  danger  of  having  fine  tail  or  mane  ruined  by 
rubbing. 

The  ration  should  be  mainly  good,  sound  oats,  as  noth- 
ing is  better.  It  may  be  varied  somewhat  from  time  to  time 
by  an  occasional  ration  of  corn  or  barley  for  variety  sake. 
A  change  of  diet  at  times  seems  to  have  a  favorable  influ- 
ence on  the  health  of  the  animal.  Wheat  bran  is  a  most 


CARE    OF    STALLIONS.  257 

valuable  adjunct,  thus  should  always  form  a  part  of  the 
grain  ration.  It  is  one  of  the  cheapest,  safest  and  best  reg- 
ulators for  the  bowels,  and  it  is  also  especially  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  ash,  two  important  constituents  from  a  nutrition 
standpoint.  For  roughness,  good,  pure  hay,  timothy,  timothy 
and  clover,  or  bright  clover,  or  good,  pure  corn  fodder,  all 
answer  an  excellent  purpose.  It  should  be  clean  and  free 
from  mould  and  should  not  be  fed  in  large  quantities.  Some 
roots,  especially  carrots,  can  be  fed  to  good  advantage 
twice  or  three  times  per  week.  The  quantity  of  feed 
will  be  governed  by  the  animal  and  the  amount  of  exer- 
cise given.  The  number  of  times  to  feed  also  varies.  Some 
good  horsemen  recommend  three  and  others  four  times  per 
day.  In  either  case  no  more  should  be  given  than  will  be 
promptly  eaten  up  clean.  Just  feed  what  the  horse  will  eat 
up  clean  with  relish.  This,  with  plenty  of  exercise,  will 
usually  keep  the  horse  in  good  condition. 

Water  should  always  be  given  before  feeding,  and  none 
for  a  couple  of  hours  afterwards.  The  stomach  of  the  horse 
is  small  (holding  about  sixteen  quarts)  and  a  pailful  or  more 
of  cold  water  will  arrest  the  action  of  digestion,  instead  of 
aiding  it,  thus  the  advisability  of  always  watering  before 
feeding.  The  stallion  should  be  watered  often,  and  given 
but  a  little  at  a  time.  Salt  should  be  kept  before  him  at  all 
times.  Either  rock  or  granular  salt  may  be  used. 

The  question  of  exercise  is  a  most  important  one.  The 
amount  of  exercise  to  be  given  will  vary  somewhat  with  the 
condition  and  habit  of  the  horse.  If  he  be  in  thin  flesh  and 
it  is  desired  to  fatten  him  up,  the  exercise  should  be  lighter 
than  it  otherwise  would  be.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  be- 
comes too  fat,  this  may  be  remedied  by  increasing  the 
amount  of  exercise.  The  walk  is  the  natural  gait  of  the  draft 
horse  and  he  should  not  be  driven  or  led  at  a  faster  gait. 

For  roadster,  coach,  or  running  horses,  a  moderate  "jog" 
will  not  hurt  them,  but  prove  beneficial.  The  light  horse  will 
also  require  much  more  exercise  than  the  draft  horse.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  have  this  exercising  done  properly.  Most 
grooms  and  stable  hands  are  too  lazy  to  do  this  work  in  a 
right  manner.  The  stallion  should  not  be  walked  or  jogged 
long  enough  to  become  tired,  but  they  should  have  enough 
of  it  daily  to  keep  the  muscles  firm,  the  appetite  good,  and 
to  prevent  the  laying  on  of  an  undue  amount  of  fat.  Most 


258  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

draft  horses  should  have  the  equivalent  of  five  or  six  miles 
walk  each  day,  while  light  horses  require  from  seven  to 
eight  to  keep  them  in  right  condition.  In  many  instances 
where  it  is  impossible  to  have  the  horses  walked  each  day, 
an  open  lot  is  used  to  provide  exercise.  This  is  not  so  good 
but  it  is  much  more  economical  of  labor,  thus  the  reason  for 
practicing  the  same.  The  exercising  lot  should  be  long  and 
rather  narrow,  so  as  to  prevent  the  stallion  from  running 
in  a  circle,  which  so  often  causes  him  to  slip  and  fall  or 
otherwise  injure  himself.  With  the  long  lot  he  will  have 
ample  opportunity  of  extending  himself  and  at  the  same  time 
little  or  no  chance  of  accident.  The  fence  around  such  a  lot 
should  be  tight  for  one-half  its  height  (about  four  feet) 
and  slat  fencing  above  so  that  the  stallion  may  see  all  that 
is  going  on  on  the  outside,  thus  eliminating  fretting  and 
worry  on  his  part. 

The  main  point  in  the  stable  management  is  to  feed, 
groom  and  exercise  so  as  to  keep  the  horse  in  the  very 
highest  possible  pitch  of  strength  and  vigor.  A  healthy  horse 
needs  nothing  but  good  food,  pure  air,  plenty  of  exercise, 
with  due  attention  to  cleanliness  and  regularity  in  feeding 
and  watering.  Some  horsemen  confine  their  horses  to  stalls 
in  which  they  are  tied,  but  the  large  majority  use  box  stalls. 
A  box  stall  twelve  feet  wide  by  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  long 
with  a  ground  floor  serves  an  excellent  purpose.  There  should 
be  a  manger  or  rack  for  hay;  in  some  instances  a  box  well 
fitted  in  the  corner  is  used  for  grain,  while  many  prefer  that 
the  feed  boxes  should  be  entirely  detached  from  the  stall 
to  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  horse  is  done  eating.  The  hay 
being  fed  on  the  floor  in  one  corner  of  the  stall,  thus  leaving 
nothing  in  the  way  of  projections  such  as  boxes,  racks,  man- 
gers, sharp  angles,  etc.,  upon  which  a  spirited  horse  might 
injure  himself.  If,  in  addition  to  these  precautions,  the  sides 
of  the  stalls  be  lined  all  around — doors  and  all — with  stout 
boards,  standing  out  at  the  bottom  about  eighteen  inches 
from  the  wall,  and  sloping  upwards  and  toward  the  wall  for 
a  height  of  three  and  a  half  feet,  you  will  have  a  stall  in 
which  it  will  be  next  to  impossible  for  a  horse  to  injure  his 
tail  or  mane  by  rubbing.  In  such  a  stall  the  stallion  should 
be  loose  and  the  owner  may  rest  assured  that  the  liability 
to  injury  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  stallion's  feet  require  careful  attention.  They  should 
be  cleaned  out  every  day  with  a  foot  hook  to  prevent  foul 


CARE    OP    STALLIONS.  259 

matter  from  collecting  about  the  frog  of  the  feet  and  causing 
"thrush"  and  other  foot  troubles. 

The  breeding  stallion,  during  service  season,  requires 
special  attention  for  the  best  results.  The  regulation  of  the 
service  of  the  stallion  is  a  feature  that  is  not  thoroughly 
understood  or  practiced  by  many  horsemen.  Some  stallions 
which  are  very  strong  and  vigorous  can  do  a  much  heavier 
season's  work  than  others.  This  should  be  carefully  regu- 
lated with  all  horses,  as  the  first  two  weeks'  use  is  the 
hardest.  Many  horses  are  ruined  for  the  entire  season  by 
too  heavy  use  during  the  first  week  of  the  breeding  season. 
The  number  of  services  should  be  limited  to  about  two  the 
first  week  and  four  the  second  week.  After  this  one  a  day 
or  two  one  day  and  one  the  next  with  strong,  mature  horses. 
This  will  depend  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  rations  fed, 
the  health  of  the  animal,  and  the  previous  management  so 
far  as  exercise  is  concerned. 


LECTURE  LXVI. 


BREAKING    AND    FITTING    HORSES    FOR    MARKET. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  to  be  consid- 
ered in  connection  with  the  horse  industry.  More  men  fail 
to  reach  the  top  in  the  horse  business,  due  to  lack  of  intelli- 
gence in  the  breaking  and  preparation  of  horses  for  the  mar- 
ket, than  from  any  other  cause.  This  subject  is  of  peculiar 
interest,  due  to  the  fact  that  so  many  men  are  concerned  in 
the  production  of  horses.  The  proper  breaking  of  a  colt 
determines  to  a  considerable  extent  the  future  usefulness  of 
the  horse,  and  no  man  who  has  ever  dealt  in  horses  and 
experienced  difficulty  in  their  management  will  deny  that  there 
is  room  for  a  great  deal  of  improvement  over  our  present 
methods  of  doing  this  work.  From  time  to  time  we  see  illus- 
trations of  improper  breaking.  We  see  people  who  have 
driven  horses  for  two  or  three  years  which  have  never  been 
taught  the  lesson  of  how  to  back.  A  horse  is  not  thor- 
oughly broken  until  it  is  taught  each  and  every  one  of  the 
things  which  it  may  be  called  upon  to  do  at  any  time.  In 
addition  to  the  losses  resulting  from  improper  breaking, 
millions  of  dollars  are  lost  to  the  farmers  of  this  country 
every  year  by  selling  horses  that  have  not  been  properly 
prepared  for  sale.  It  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  fit 
horses  for  sale.  It  can  be  done  without  taking  them  from 
their  regular  work.  Still,  where  heavy  gains  are  to  be  made, 
the  less  work  a  horse  does  and  the  quieter  he  is  kept,  the 
quicker  he  will  put  on  flesh. 

In  breaking  a  colt  the  first  thing  to  be  considered  is 
the  nature  of  the  animal.  The  disposition  of  no  two  horses 
is  exactly  alike.  As  a  rule  there  is  a  great  difference  in 
the  disposition  of  the  native  horse  and  those  from  the  west- 
ern states,  especially  from  the  ranges.  The  native  horse  is 
much  easier  broken  than  the  western  horse,  though  the  lat- 
ter, when  properly  broken,  is  a  very  reliable  animal.  There  is 
also  a  great  difference  in  draft  and  light  horses,  especially 
those  which  are  bred  for  trotting  and  running  purposes. 


BREAKING   COLTS.  261 

The  draft  horse  requires  much  less  preparatory  handling  than 
the  trotting  or  running  bred  horse. 

After  making  a  careful  study  of  the  disposition  of  a  colt 
the  next  thing  to  do  is  to  halter  it.  To  do  this  properly  the 
person  in  charge  must  possess  a  great  deal  of  patience.  The 
colt  should  be  properly  secured  in  a  box  stall  or  a  small 
shed,  preferably  one  with  a  ground  floor,  so  as  to  eliminate 
all  danger  from  slipping.  Take  a  halter  with  a  rope  about 
fifteen  feet  long  attached  to  it.  Pet  the  colt  and  treat  him 
kindly  so  as  to  win  his  confidence,  and  he  will  soon  learn 
that  you  are  not  going  to  hurt  him,  thus  making  it  usually 
very  easy  to  put  on  the  halter  without  any  trouble.  If  the 
colt  is  at  all  nervous  and  likely  to  pull  on  the  halter  it 
is  best  to  break  him  of  this  at  the  beginning.  Take  the 
loose  end  of  the  rope  and  pass  it  through  a  hole  in  the 
manger  or  around  a  post  and  back  between  the  fore  legs, 
placing  it  around  the  girth  and  tying  it  there.  The  eolt  is 
now  tied  by  both  the  head  and  the  body.  Step  back  from 
him  and  let  him  fight  it  out,  and  it  will  usually  not  take  him 
very  long  to  learn  that  he  is  conquered.  When  tied  in  this 
way  there  is  no  danger  of  injury,  as  is  oftentimes  the  case 
when  tied  by  the  head  only.  As  soon  as  he  learns  to  stand 
quietly  and  has  given  up  pulling  on  the  halter,  pet  him  and 
give  him  to  understand  that  you  are  his  friend. 

It  is  well  to  leave  him  tied  for  some  time  before  trying 
to  teach  him  to  lead.  Teaching  a  colt  to  lead  by  the  halter 
is  a  very  important  part  of  his  education.  Here  is  where  a 
great  many  men  fail.  A  horse  that  is  well  broken  to  lead  is 
more  attractive,  easier  to  handle,  and  will  command  a  higher 
price  in  the  market  than  one  that  is  not  properly  broken. 
In  training  to  lead  always  teach  the  colt  to  walk  beside  you 
and  never  allow  him  to  follow  along  behind,  as  is  often  the 
case.  This  can  be  done  very  readily  by  taking  a  whip  in 
the  left  hand  and  touching  him  up  a  little  from  behind  as  you 
walk  along.  A  few  lessons  of  this  kind  will  teach  him  that 
the  proper  place  for  him  is  beside  you,  and  he  will  not  want 
to  be  any  other  place. 

After  being  well  trained  to  walk  beside  you,  encourage 
him  to  trot.  This  can  also  be  done  with  the  gentle  use  of 
the  whip.  It  is  well  at  the  beginning  to  have  the  lead  shank 
in  the  mouth  of  the  colt,  so  that  he  will  not  get  away  from 
you  should  he  become  frightened.  In  leading,  keep  his  head 


262  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

well  up,  so  as  to  make  him  look  attractive  and  stylish.  Also 
keep  his  head  as  straight  ahead  of  him  as  possible. 

Do  not  make  the  lessons  too  long  or  tiresome,  as  short 
lessons,  given  often,  are  the  best.  A  colt  which  is  well 
broken  to  the  halter  will  always  show  to  good  advantage. 
After  he  is  thoroughly  halter  broken,  the  next  step  is  to  get 
him  used  to  the  biting  harness.  This  consists  of  an  open 
bridle  with  a  check,  surcingle,  crupper  and  side  lines,  which 
go  from  the  surcingle  to  the  bit  to  prevent  him  from  turning 
his  head  to  either  side.  Put  this  on  him  and  check  him  up 
— not  too  high  at  first,  but  raising  his  head  a  little  each  day 
until  the  desired  height  is  obtained — which  will  make  him 
look  most  attractive.  For  this  lesson  let  him  have  a  yard 
in  which  he  may  go  about  at  his  own  will.  After  he  has  be- 
come well  accustomed  to  the  bit  and  check,  put  on  long 
lines  instead  of  the  short  side  lines  and  teach  him  to  drive, 
start  and  stop  at  the  word;  also  to  back.  This  is  a  very 
important  part  of  the  breaking.  It  is  very  easy  to  teach  a 
colt  to  back  if  you  have  plenty  of  patience.  Most  men  are 
in  too  much  of  a  hurry  to  do  this  properly.  Encourage  him 
to  back,  step  by  step,  by  steadily  pulling  on  the  lines  and  at 
the  same  time  telling  him  to  back.  As  soon  as  he  makes  a 
step  backwards  slacken  on  the  lines  and  say  "Whoa."  Re- 
peat this  until  he  will  back  when  told  and  as  often  as  you 
tell  him.  If  proper  care  and  kindness  are  combined  it  will 
not  take  long  to  accomplish  this  part  of  his  education. 

The  next  step  in  the  colt's  education  is  to  hitch  him  in 
harness.  This  may  be  done  either  single  or  double.  In  many 
respects  it  is  preferable  to  break  him  single  at  first.  The 
advantages  of  breaking  him  double  over  single  at  first  are 
that  when  he  is  hitched  with  a  reliable  horse  he  will  not 
shy  so  readily  at  strange  obstacles.  The  only  reason  we 
recommend  breaking  him  single  at  first  is  that  his  education 
up  to  this  point  has  been  alone— not  with  other  horses.  In 
breaking  him  single  he  should  be  hitched  to  some  kind  of  a 
breaking  cart.  There  are  many  good  breaking  carts  on  the 
market  which  are  not  very  expensive.  The  cart  must  be 
strong  and  durable.  These  are  points  which  must  be  given 
careful  consideration.  Many  a  good  colt  is  ruined  by  first 
hitching  him  to  some  worn  out  or  dilapidated  cart  or  vehicle 
of  some  kind.  A  man  who  has  not  a  breaking  cart  may 
accomplish  the  desired  end  in  another  way.  He  can  make 
a  breaking  cart  by  using  two  wheels  of  a  light  wagon  with  an 


BREAKING   COLTS.  263 

axle,  to  which  he  may  attach  two  poles  to  act  as  shafts. 
These  poles  or  shafts  should  be  long  enough  so  that  should 
the  colt  kick  he  will  not  in  any  way  hit  the  cross  bar  or  get 
his  feet  over  the  same.  A  seat  should  be  placed  on  the 
cart  and  then  it  is  ready  for  use.  While  this  may  not  look 
so  nice  as  a  regular  breaking  cart,  it  oftentimes  answers  a 
very  good  purpose  and  will  save  the  breaking  of  a  good 
buggy  or  other  vehicle  which  is  not  intended  to  be  used  for 
breaking  colts. 

An  open  bridle  is  best,  for  when  broken  with  an  open 
bridle  the  colt  will  usually  go  all  right  with  the  blinders. 
Always  start  a  colt  with  an  easy  bit,  for  a  severe  bit  that 
will  irritate  the  mouth  will  oftentimes  make  him  misbehave 
when  otherwise  he  will  go  all  right. 

When  first  hitching  a  colt  always  use  a  harness  with  a 
breeching,  so  that  he  will  get  used  to  it  along  with  the  other 
harness.  Before  hitching  a  colt  in  the  cart  it  is  best  to  put 
a  set  of  hopples  on  him.  These  can  easily  be  made  by  taking 
a  set  of  straps,  which  should  be  strong  and  large  enough  to 
pass  around  the  fetlock.  These  straps  should  have  rings  in 
them.  To  the  rings  attach  a  rope  about  twelve  feet  long. 
Pass  the  rope  from  each  one  of  these  straps  up  through  the 
girth  and  back  to  the  seat.  This  will  be  found  to  be  very 
helpful  in  case  anything  should  go  wrong  and  the  colt  should 
become  unmanageable  so  far  as  reining  him  by  the  bit  is 
concerned.  Should  anything  happen  just  pull  up  on  the  rope 
and  you  will  bring  him  down  on  his  knees,  and  thus  prevent 
him  running.  He  should  not  be  pulled  up  too  severely,  as 
sometimes  by  so  doing  you  may  bruise  or  skin  his  legs. 
This  will  also  be  found  to  be  very  helpful  in  teaching  the 
colt  to  stand,  as  he  will  soon  discover  that  you  have  a  power 
over  him  which  makes  it  impossible  for  him  to  get  away. 

When  hitching  the  colt  for  the  first  time  be  as  careful 
as  possible  not  to  frighten  him  in  any  way,  as  much  of  the 
success  depends  upon  the  first  time  he  is  driven.  As  soon 
as  the  colt  is  gotten  into  the  shafts  and  everything  is  securely 
fastened,  get  on  the  seat  and  start  him  off  as  quietly  as 
possible.  Should  he  attempt  to  run  or  do  anything  out  of 
place,  a  gentle  pull  on  the  hopples  will  soon  convince  him 
that  he  is  under  your  control.  Keep  him  at  a  moderate 
speed,  stopping  occasionally.  Also  teach  him  to  walk.  Be 
sure  and  do  not  give  him  too  long  a  lesson  the  first  time. 
Many  people  make  a  great  mistake  in  this  respect.  Two 


264  1'IVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

hours  will  be  sufficient  for  the  first  lesson.  Kind  treatment 
and  considerate  driving  will  accomplish  a  great  deal  in  a 
short  period  of  time.  The  colt  should  receive  his  lessons 
each  day  until  thoroughly  accustomed  to  driving.  Should  he 
show  any  inclination  to  shy,  do  not  use  the  whip  after  he 
has  passed  the  same,  as  it  always  does  more  harm  than  good. 
Some  people  object  to  leading  a  colt  past  a  strange  obstacle. 
This  is  something  which  oftentimes  can  be  done  to  advan- 
tage. It  is  not  good  policy,  however,  to  always  lead  an 
animal  by  anything  which  in  any  way  appears  to  scare  it. 
Sooner  or  later  the  animal  must  learn  to  pass  by  such 
obstacles  of  its  own  accord.  It  is  much  better  policy 
to  lead  a  colt  past  something  of  that  kind  than  to  try  to 
whip  him  by  it.  In  getting  a  colt  accustomed  to  electric 
cars,  steam  cars  and  other  such  obstacles,  do  not  take  him 
too  close  the  first  time.  Gradually  drive  him  a  little  closer 
each  time,  until  he  finally  learns  that  it  will  not  in  any  way 
harm  him,  thus  he  will  stand  real  close  without  any  fear. 

Should  the  colt  get  his  tail  over  the  line,  do  not  pull  on 
the  line.  By  so  doing  you  will  teach  him  to  grip  it,  thus 
cause  much  trouble.  Just  slacken  the  line  and  usually  you 
can  get  it  free  without  any  trouble. 

In  teaching  the  colt  to  back  when  hitched,  do  it  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  when  driving  with  the  lines.  Be  care- 
ful, however,  not  to  expect  him  to  back  too  quickly. 

After  the  colt  has  been  driven  and  you  wish  to  unhitch 
him,  never  do  up  the  lines  first,  then  the  tugs  and  last  the 
holdbacks.  Always  do  up  the  tugs  first,  then  the  holdbacks, 
and  lastly,  the  lines.  Then  should  he  start  to  run  you  will 
always  have  something  to  catch  and  prevent  him.  In  hitch- 
ing him  double  the  same  care  and  precaution  is  necessary. 
It  is  best  to  hitch  him  with  some  well  broken  horse  that  is 
a  good  walker  and  a  free  driver.  Never  hitch  him  with  a 
lazy  horse  that  has  to  be  whipped  up  all  the  time.  Hitching 
a  colt  with  a  lazy  horse  which  requires  the  constant  use  of 
the  whip,  will  nine  times  out  of  ten  ruin  it. 

If  colts  are  of  good  size,  and  especially  those  belonging 
to  the  draft  class,  they  may  do  some  light  work  very  soon 
after  being  broken.  In  fact  they  will  learn  just  as  fast,  and 
can  be  taught  to  do  a  great  many  things  while  doing  light 
work.  Light  horses  or  colts  which  are  bred  for  trotting  or 
coach  purposes  can  oftentimes  be  made  to  do  a  certain 
amount  of  light  work  without  any  injury.  In  teaching  the 


FITTING  HOUSES  FOli  MARKET.  265 

colt  to  draw  a  load,  be  sure  and  have  it  light  at  the  begin- 
ning. Gradually  increase  the  weight  from  time  to  time  as 
he  is  able  to  handle  it.  Encourage  him  in  his  work,  start 
him  easy  and  he  will  usually  get  along  nicely.  Balkiness  in 
horses  is  nine  times  out  of  ten  caused  by  injudicious  han- 
dling at  this  stage.  Many  men  will  load  a  colt  down  with  far 
more  than  he  can  handle  and  then,  if  he  does  not  start  right, 
will  whip  him  and  abuse  him.  When  this  once  happens  it  is 
very  seldom  that  a  colt  will  ever  develop  into  a  horse  of 
much  value.  In  teaching  a  colt  to  draw  at  first  it  is  very 
important  that  he  is  always  placed  where  he  has  good  foot- 
ing. Otherwise  he  may  become  discouraged  and  be  made  to 
balk.  After  having  him  nicely  started  the  main  object  should 
be  to  keep  him  going  and  not  to  undo  anything  that  has 
already  been  accomplished. 

In  the  preparation  of  horses  for  the  market,  breaking, 
while  very  important,  is  only  part  of  the  work.  Everything 
should  be  done  to  make  the  animal  attractive  to  the  eye  of 
the  purchaser.  No  man  can  expect  to  receive  the  full  value 
for  his  horses  which  he  has  raised  and  broken  unless  he  fits 
them  in  such  condition  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
market.  The  market  demands  horses  of  mature  age,  and  it 
matters  not  whether  they  are  trotting  bred,  coach  or  draft, 
they  must  be  in  good  flesh  to  bring  their  full  value  on  the 
market.  Farmers,  as  a  general  rule,  fail  to  recognize  this 
last  fact,  and  millions  of  dollars  are  lost  to  the  farmers  of 
this  country  annually,  due  to  this  one  neglect.  A  horse  is 
not  recognized  on  the  market  as  being  a  mature  animal 
until  he  is  five  years  old. 

In  fitting  horses  for  sale  it  is  very  important  that  they 
be  in  good  condition.  Draft  horses  may  oftentimes  be  fat- 
tened and  will  usually  make  much  larger  gains  when  they 
are  confined  to  the  stalls  than  when  worked  or  given  exer- 
cise. Light  horses  which  are  intended  for  driving  purposes 
cannot  be  fattened  in  this  way,  but  should  be  given  a  regular 
amount  of  exercise  every  day.  and  this  can  best  be  accom- 
plished by  moderate  driving.  The  stables  should  be  com- 
fortable, the  stalls  kept  well  bedded,  and  horses  so  arranged 
in  the  stalls  as  to  best  attract  the  eye  of  visitors  or  buyers 
who  may  happen  to  visit  the  farm. 

As  previously  stated,  driving  horses  should  be  given  a 
liberal  amount  of  exercise,  and  this  can  just  as  well  be 
accomplished  by  doing  a  moderate  day's  work,  but  under  no 


266  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

circumstance  should  they  be  over  worked  or  over  driven. 
Many  men  who  are  preparing  horses  for  market  make  the 
fatal  mistake  of  allowing  their  animals  to  remain  in  the 
stalls  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  then  take  them  out  to  exercise 
and  drive  them  for  a  few  hours  as  fast  as  the  animal  can 
go,  and  by  so  doing  remove  all  the  flesh  which  they  have 
put  on  in  the  previous  eight  or  ten  days. 

Another  point  which  we  must  consider  is  the  grooming. 
This  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  preparation.  A  horse 
with  a  sleek  and  glossy  coat  is  much  more  attractive  than 
one  with  long,  dry  hair.  They  should  always  receive  a  good 
cleaning  at  least  once  a  day.  The  feet  and  legs  should  also 
be  given  proper  attention.  The  manes  and  tails  should  be  kept 
well  brushed,  so  as  to  give  them  a  neat  and  attractive 
appearance.  Do  not  use  a  curry  comb  on  the  mane  or  tail, 
as  it  has  a  tendency  to  cut  the  hair,  thus  give  it  a  rough 
appearance.  A  singer  can  usually  be  used  to  good  advantage 
to  do  away  with  the  long  hairs  under  the  body  and  around 
the  throat.  In  light  horses  a  great  improvement  can  be 
made  by  clipping  the  legs  as  far  as  the  knees  in  front  and 
as  far  as  the  hocks  behind.  This  requires  to  be  neatly  done 
and  well  tapered  off  at  the  knee  and  hock,  so  as  to  look  as 
smooth  as  possible.  The  hair  in  the  ear  should  also  be 
clipped  out  and  the  mane  pulled.  The  feet  should  be  prop- 
erly trimmed  and  kept  well  leveled.  A  few  hours  put  on  a 
horse  in  preparing  him  in  this  way  will  add  much  to  his 
appearance  and  may  add  $50  or  $100  to  his  selling  price. 

When  the  horse  is  nearly  ready  for  sale  give  him  an 
occasional  lesson  on  the  halter.  Teach  him  to  trot  up  well 
with  a  graceful  carriage,  to  stand  with  his  head  erect  so  as 
to  present  a  good  appearance  when  the  buyer  inspects  him. 
In  this  respect  it  is  always  better  in  standing  a  horse  to 
stand  him  with  his  front  feet  a  little  higher  than  his  hind 
feet.  If  you  wish  to  drive  him  in  harness  and  present  him 
in  this  way  for  sale,  be  sure  and  have  the  harness  well 
cleaned  and  polished,  as  it  will  add  many  dollars  to  the  value 
of  the  animal.  Have  the  harness  properly  adjusted  and 
fitted  to  the  horse.  Any  deviation  from  this  depreciates  the 
value  of  the  animal.  In  showing  a  horse  in  harness,  teach 
him  to  drive  up;  also  to  stand  with  his  head  well  up. 


LECTURE  LXVII. 


FATTENING   HORSES   FOR   MARKET. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  to  be  considered  in 
the  preparation  of  horses  for  the  market  is  to  have  them 
properly  fattened.  This  applies  to  all  classes  of  horses,  but 
it  more  especially  applies  to  the  draft  horse.  Usually  car- 
riage horses  and  other  types  of  horses  intended  for  driving 
purposes  carry  a  sufficient  amount  of  flesh.  They  should  be 
fat  enough  to  give  them  a  smooth  appearance.  The  draft 
horse,  however,  is  a  different  animal.  He  must  be  unusually 
fat  to  sell  to  advantage.  Nine-tenths  of  our  draft  horses 
which  are  sold  weighing  from  1600  to  1700  pounds,  should 
be  made  to  weigh  from  1800  to  2000  pounds.  The  draft 
horse  market  is  a  peculiar  one,  as  weight  is  one  of  the 
most  important  factors  in  determining  the  price.  Usually 
every  100  pounds  in  a  draft  horse  after  he  weighs  1600  to 
1800  pounds  is  worth  twenty-five  cents  a  pound;  every  pound 
from  1800  to  2100  pounds  is  worth  about  fifty  cents  a  pound; 
thus  the  importance  of  having  the  horse  real  fat. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  driving  horse  it  is  very  import- 
ant that  he  be  given  regular  exercise.  With  the  draft  horse 
this  is  not  so  important.  In  fact  most  successful  fitters  omit 
exercise  altogether,  claiming  that  they  can  get  much  heavier 
gains  by  keeping  the  animals  in  a  quiet  place.  Many  men 
prefer  tying  them  in  stalls  where  they  may  have  a  ground 
floor  and  a  rather  dark  stable.  These  conditions  seem  to 
be  conducive  to  the  putting  on  of  flesh. 

In  the  preparation  of  driving  horses  for  market  the  feed- 
ing of  the  same  should  be  somewhat  different  from  that  prac- 
ticed in  the  fattening  of  the  draft  horse.  It  is  always  best 
to  water  before  feeding  in  any  class  of  horses,  and  never 
after  feeding  until  two  or  three  hours  have  elapsed.  Salt 
should  be  kept  within  reach  of  the  animals  at  all  times.  In 
feeding  the  driving  horse  do  not  make  the  common  mistake 
of  feeding  too  much.  About  three-fourths  pound  hay  per 
day  for  every  one  hundred  pounds  weight  of  the  animal  is 


268  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

sufficient.  That  is,  a  horse  weighing  1200  does  not  require 
more  than  nine  pounds  of  hay  daily.  The  hay  should  be 
pure  and  free  from  dust.  For  grain  a  mixture  of  oats,  corn 
and  bran,  fed  in  the  proportion  of  about  fifty  pounds  corn, 
fifty  pounds  oats  and  twenty-five  pounds  bran,  makes  a  very 
good  mixture.  Feed  about  one  pound  per  day  for  every  100 
pounds  weight  of  the  animal.  In  some  instances,  however, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  feed  somewhat  more. 

Boiled  or  steamed  feed,  fed  two  or  three  times  a  week, 
will  be  found  to  be  very  helpful  in  keeping  the  animal  in 
good  health;  also  in  giving  a  sleek  coat  of  hair.  A  little  oil 
meal  or  flaxseed  added  to  the  feed  before  being  steamed 
will  also  be  found  to  be  very  beneficial  in  this  respect. 
Some  carrots  or  potatoes  may  also  be  fed  to  good  advantage. 
The  method  of  feeding  above  referred  to  is  especially 
desirable  and  applicable  to  the  fitting  of  light  horses.  They 
must  be  given  regular  exercise. 

The  horse  most  commonly  grown  upon  the  farm  and  the 
one  which  is  so  often  neglected  when  it  comes  to  preparing 
him  for  market,  is  the  draft  horse.  He  should  be  fattened 
in  a  somewhat  different  way.  As  previously  stated,  pounds 
of  flesh  are  an  important  factor  in  determining  his  market 
value.  This  being  the  case  it  is  very  necessary  to  have 
him  make  heavy  gains.  One  of  the  first  points  to  be  con- 
sidered in  fattening  a  horse  is  to  attend  to  his  teeth.  Many 
horses  fail  to  make  good  gains,  due  to  the  fact  that  their 
teeth  are  not  in  proper  condition.  The  preparation  of  the 
teeth  is  known  as  the  floating  of  the  teeth.  It  is  best  to 
get  a  veterinarian  to  do  this,  as  he  has  the  proper  instru- 
ments, and  where  there  are  many  to  do  it  can  be  done  more 
rapidly.  Floating  the  teeth  is  a  point  which  a  great  many 
people  overlook  and  is  in  many  instances  the  real  cause  of 
a  horse  being  out  of  condition.  When  a  horse  has  a  number 
of  sharp  projections  on  his  teeth  the  gums  become  raw  and 
sore,  so  that  he  does  not  masticate  his  food  thoroughly,  con- 
sequently indigestion  often  results  and  the  horse  runs  down 
in  his  condition.  In  examining  a  lot  of  horses  recently  it 
was  found  that  a  large  number  of  them  had  sharp  projec- 
tions on  the  under  edge  of  the  grinders.  Their  mouths 
were  in  such  a  condition  that  a  person  would  wonder  how 
they  could  eat  at  all.  But  after  the  teeth  had  been  floated 
down  quite  a  marked  change  was  noticed. 


FATTENING  HORSES  FOR  MARKET.  269 

As  previously  stated,  one  of  the  most  important  points  to 
be  considered  in  fattening  draft  horses  for  market  is  to  se- 
cure heavy  gains.  In  this  connection  fattening  of  the  draft 
horse  is  commonly  termed  stall  feeding  horses  for  market. 
It  is  done  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  with  cattle.  In 
one  of  the  large  horse  feeding  establishments  of  the  West 
the  following  method  is  practiced:  The  horses  are  pur- 
chased, their  teeth  are  floated  and  they  are  all  put  in  the 
barn  and  fed  gradually,  as  great  care  must  be  taken  for  a 
few  days  to  avoid  colic.  It  seems  most  preferable  to  feed 
them  grain  about  five  times  per  day,  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  stomach  of  a  horse,  being  proportionately  smaller  than 
the  stomach  of  a  cow,  he  needs  his  feed  in  smaller  quantities 
and  often.  The  hay  is  placed  in  racks  so  that  they  may 
have  access  to  it  at  all  times.  They  are  given  all  the  water 
they  will  drink  twice  a  day.  The  following  method  is  fol- 
lowed in  feeding  the  grain:  Corn  is  given  at  5  o'clock  in 
the  morning;  water  at  7;  the  hay  racks  filled  at  9  o'clock, 
when  they  are  also  given  oats  and  bran,  the  proportion  being 
two-thirds  bran  and  one-third  oats.  Then  at  12  o'clock  they 
are  fed  corn  again;  at  3  in  the  afternoon  oats  and  bran,  and 
the  hay  racks  are  refilled;  at  4  they  are  given  a  second 
watering:  and  at  6  the  last  feed  of  corn  is  given.  The  pro- 
portion for  each  horse  when  upon  full  feed  is  as  follows: 
Corn,  from  ten  to  fourteen  ears  at  each  feed;  oats  and  bran, 
about  three  quarts  per  feed,  making  in  all  from  thirty  to 
forty  ears  of  corn  and  six  quarts  of  oats  and  bran  per  horse 
per  day.  The  horses  are  not  given  any  exercise.  It  seems 
impossible  to  give  them  all  sufficient  exercise,  thus  they  are 
not  given  any  from  the  time  they  are  put  in  the  barn  until 
a  few  days  before  they  are  to  be  shipped.  As  a  substitute 
for  exercise,  in  order  to  keep  the  blood  in  good  order,  thus 
preventing  stock  legs,  Glauber  salts  is  used.  This  is  found 
to  be  quite  satisfactory  and  will  in  most  cases  prevent  this 
trouble.  It  is  mixed  with  the  oats  and  bran,  as  in  this  way 
the  horses  eat  them  quite  readily.  These  salts  are  fed  about 
twice  per  week.  They  can  be  purchased  very  cheaply  from 
the  druggist  when  bought  in  considerable  quantities.  They 
are  not  so  strong  as  the  Epsom  salts  and  they  have  a  desira- 
ble and  cooling  effect  upon  the  blood.  The  same  firm  also 
feeds  oil  meal.  They  claim  that  it  aids  greatly  in  putting 
on  flesh;  also  that  it  gives  the  skin  a  soft,  mellow  touch. 
The  mangers  and  feed  boxes  should  be  cleaned  out  twice  a 


270  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

clay,  and  the  cobs  and  all  other  refuse  thrown  out  behind 
the  horses  and  taken  out  with  the  manure.  The  horses 
should  be  given  sufficient  time  to  rest  their  stomachs,  and 
this  can  be  done  by  giving  the  first  feed  at  5  o'clock  in  the 
morning  and  the  last  between  6  and  7  at  night.  Horses 
fed  as  described  above  usually  make  good  gains.  In  some 
instances  horses  fed  in  this  manner  have  made  a  gain  of 
five  and  one-half  pounds  a  day  for  a  period  of  fifty  to  one 
hundred  days.  One  horse  gained  550  pounds  in  100  days. 
In  many  instances  from  one  dozen  to  twenty  horses  have 
made  an  average  daily  gain  of  three  and  one-third  pounds 
per  day  for  a  period  of  ninety  days. 

One  of  the  largest  horse  feeding  establishments  in  the 
state  of  Illinois,  a  firm  which  has  fed  hundreds  of  horses 
annually,  feed  much  along  the  same  line  as  outlined  above. 
They  made  a  business  of  buying  in  horses  in  the  half-fed 
condition  from  farmers  and  feeding  them  from  one  to  three 
months  in  preparation  for  the  market.  The  length  of  the 
feeding  period  would  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the 
animal  when  purchased  and  the  prospective  outcome  of  the 
same.  Large  framed,  coarse  boned  animals  were  always  fed 
much  longer  than  the  fine,  pony  built  horses.  The  former 
class  would  make  heavier  gains  and  required  more  flesh  to 
give  them  finish  and  to  make  them  attractive  to  the  eye 
of  the  purchaser. 

Many  people  have  doubted  the  wisdom  of  forcing  the 
horses  in  this  way.  They  claim  that  the  animals  will  not 
wear  as  long  after  being  subjected  to  such  fattening  pro- 
cesses. This  may  be  so,  and  no  doubt  it  is  in  no  small 
degree.  Still,  we  must  cater  to  the  demands  of  the  market. 
We  must  give  our  purchasers  what  they  want.  In  draft 
horses  they  demand  fat,  thus  if  we  hope  to  get  the  highest 
value  for  our  animals  we  must  sell  them  in  high  flesh. 


LECTURE    LXVIII. 


STABLING    SUITABLE    FOR    HORSES. 

Shelter  of  some  kind  must  be  provided  for  the  horse, 
especially  for  the  work  horse.  In  this  respect  they  differ 
from  the  other  kinds  of  stock,  as  nearly  all  the  other  classes 
of  stock  in  some  country  or  portion  of  country  are  main- 
tained without  shelter.  In  cold  climates  stables  are  neces- 
sary for  the  horse  as  a  means  of  protection  and  from  the 
standpoint  of  convenience.  In  warmer  climates  they  are 
more  often  provided  and  used  as  a  means  of  convenience. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  horse  is  used  for  labor  pur- 
poses, thus  must  oftentimes  be  had  on  very  short  notice. 
This  of  necessity  causes  the  owner  to  make  some  provision 
of  a  place  of  some  kind  where  the  horse  can  always  be 
found.  Out  of  this  necessary  provision  has  grown  the  many 
elaborate  stables  of  the  present  day. 

In  general,  stables  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  occasion  to  the  very  best  advantage  for  the 
smallest  expense  possible.  They  must  be  so  constructed  as 
to  protect  the  animals  from  the  cold  blasts  of  winter,  also 
to  supply  plenty  of  fresh  air  during  the  summer  months. 
They  must  be  convenient  and  durable.  They  must  be  well 
lighted  and  have  proper  facilities  for  ventilation.  These 
are  points  which  must  always  be  considered  in  planning 
the  stable. 

Most  men  make  the  mistake  of  building  too  small  a 
structure,  and  as  a  result  reduce  the  size  of  the  stalls,  the 
alleys,  the  feed  rooms  and  harness  rooms,  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  are  always  inconvenient.  The  horse  stable  should 
"be  convenient.  It  is  used  every  day  in  the  year  and  every 
provision  possible  should  be  made  to  have  feed  rooms  con- 
venient, the  stalls  wide  enough,  the  alleys  wide  enough, 
so  that  either  horse  or  man  can  pass  behind  the  other  ani- 
mals with  safety.  The  harness  room  should  be  near  as 
possible  so  as  to  eliminate  all  unnecessary  walking  on  the 
part  of  the  attendant.  Ample  provision  must  also  be  made 


272  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

for  plenty  of  light,  as  nothing  will  add  more  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  stable  and  the  health  of  the  animals  than  plenty 
of  sunshine. 

The  stalls  should  be  of  sufficient  length  and  width  to 
answer  the  needs  of  the  animals.  Single  stalls  are  prefera- 
ble to  double  stalls  on  account  of  the  greater  safety  and 
freedom  which  they  afford  the  animals.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  case  of  a  man  who  is  constantly  purchasing  new 
animals.  Some  of  the  stalls  should  be  larger  than  others 
so  as  to  make  ample  provision  for  larger  animals.  Box 
stalls  should  always  be  provided.  They  are  very  convenient 
for  brood  mares,  foals,  or  horses  which  are  in  any  way 
injured.  No  stable  is  complete  without  at  least  two  large, 
well-lighted  vbox  stalls.  They  also  make  a  very  safe  place  to 
put  a  vicious  horse  in  during  the  night,  thus  preventing  his 
harming  the  other  animals  in  the  stable  should  he  by  accident 
become  freed  from  his  own  stall. 

The  mangers  should  not  be  too  high  from  the  ground 
and  should  be  provided  tight,  bottoms.  Boxes  should  be 
arranged  in  one  end  of  the  manger  for  the  purpose  of  feed- 
ing grain.  The  floors  may  be  brick,  cement,  wood  or 
ground.  The  brick  floors  are  durable,  but  hard  on  the  ani- 
mal unless  very  heavily  bedded.  The  cement  floors  are 
much  the  same  as  the  brick,  with  the  exception  that  they 
are  not  so  durable  where  horses  have  sharp  calkins  on  their 
shoes.  The  sharp  calkins  have  a  tendency  to  chip  the 
cement  and  in  time  make  holes  in  the  same.  The  wooden 
floors  are  not  durable  and  are  also  filthy,  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  retain  too  much  moisture.  The  ground  floor  is  the 
only  kind  which  is  not  hard  on  the  feet  of  the  horse.  They 
are  objectionable  in  some  instances,  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
are  easily  "pawed"  by  horses  which  have  such  a  tendency. 

In  recapitulation  we  would  emphasize  the  importance  of 
securing  the  greatest  amount  of  convenience,  comfort,  light, 
and  durability  for  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  money. 


LECTURE   LXIX. 


FEED,   CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT   OF   BROOD  SOWS. 

One  of  the  most  common  mistakes  made  in  connection 
with  brood  sows  is  the  use  of  the  immature  animals  for 
breeding  purposes.  In  the  Central  West,  and  in  fact  in 
most  sections  of  the  country,  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of 
the  sows  which  are  kept  for  breeding  purposes  are  under 
one  year  of  age.  This  simply  makes  the  breeding  business 
more  or  less  complex  in  its  nature.  That  is,  we  have  no 
assurance  of  the  value  of  these  young  animals  for  breeding 
purposes.  A  sow  which  has  once  been  bred  and  reared  a 
good  litter  of  pigs  can  usually  be  counted  upon  to  do  like- 
wise afterwards.  The  evil  results  which  follow  the  breeding 
from  immature  sows  are:  1.  Reduced  size  of  litters.  2.  A 
weakened  constitution.  3.  A  general  refinement  in  the  ani- 
mal and  lack  of  size.  These  are  all  points  which  each  and 
every  breeder  of  hogs  must  consider  very  carefully.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  only  safe  kind  of  a  sow  to  keep  for  breed- 
ing purposes  is  a  mature  animal  which  has  already  proven 
her  worth  as  a  breeder.  Brood  sows  should  be  fed  differently 
from  those  animals  intended  for  fattening  purposes.  Corn, 
while  an  excellent  feed  for  fattening  hogs,  should  be  used 
in  very  moderate  amounts  for  breeding  animals.  It  should 
not  form  more  than  one-third  of  the  ration.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  corn  is  a  fat  and  heat  producing  feed.  The 
ration  of  the  brood  sow  should  be  of  a  nitrogenous  nature, 
so  as  to  have  a  cooling  effect  upon  the  system.  Sows  which 
have  an  abundance  of  exercise  can  withstand  more  corn  feed- 
ing than  those  that  are  confined  to  the  pens.  A  ration  of 
shorts  and  oats,  or  some  gluten  feed,  or  any  other  feed  stuff 
which  is  fairly  rich  in  nitrogen,  will  give  good  results.  Prob- 
ably one  of  the  best  rations  will  be  a  mixture  of  one  part 
corn,  one  part  shorts,  and  one  part  oats.  In  some  instances 
bran  is  used,  instead  of  shorts,  for  feeding  of  brood  sows, 
especially  where  mature  animals  are  kept  for  breeding  pur- 


274  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

poses.  Oil  meal,  while  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for 
breeding  stock  and  for  fattening  hogs,  must  be  fed  with 
great  care  to  the  brood  sow,  especially  near  farrowing  time. 
It  has  been  known  to  cause  abortion  when  fed  in  considera- 
ble quantities  shortly  before  farrowing  time.  During  the 
summer  months,  the  brood  sow  should  have  the  run  of  a  blue 
grass,  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture.  If  none  of  these  are  avail- 
able, some  forage  crop,  such  as  rye,  oats  and  barley;  peas, 
oats  and  barley;  sorghum,  cow  peas,  sweet  corn  or  rape 
should  be  supplied.  It  is  also  very  important  that  the 
brood  sow  be  fed  succulent  food  during  the  winter  season. 
In  this  respect  some  corn  ensilage  or  roots  answer  a  very 
good  purpose.  These  keep  the  digestive  system  in  good 
order.  It  is  further  believed  that  some  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
which  has  been  finely  cut  and  steamed  serves  a  good  purpose. 
In  some  instances  the  use  of  leaves  of  alfalfa  or  clover  as 
a  part  of  the  ration  is  recommended.  One  important  feature 
which  should  not  be  overlooked  is  the  necessity  of  plenty  of 
exercise.  Many  men  make  a  fatal  mistake  by  confining 
their  brood  sows  to  a  small  pen  and  feeding  them  heavily 
on  feeds  of  a  fattening  nature.  Where  such  a  course  is 
followed,  evil  results  are  almost  sure  to  come  at  farrowing 
time.  The  sow  will  usually  be  so  fat  and  her  system  heated 
to  such  a  degree  that  milk  fever  or  inflammation  of  the 
udder  is  almost  sure  to  occur.  The  number  of  litters  per 
year  which  a  sow  should  rear  will  depend  upon  the  condi- 
tions. If  you  wish  to  market  your  pigs  twice  a  year  at  the 
age  of  six  or  seven  months,  it  will  be  found  much  more 
profitable  to  rear  two  litters  per  year  than  one.  This  is 
especially  true  in  those  sections  of  the  country  where  the 
bacon  hog  is  produced.  Where  mature  sows  are  used  for 
breeding  purposes,  two  litters  per  year  can  be  reared  to 
advantage.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  where  two  litters 
per  year  are  reared  it  is  a  very  hard  drain  on  the  system 
of  the  sow.  Young  and  immature  animals  cannot  withstand 
such  a  drain  on  the  system.  Where  mature  hogs  are  used 
and  they  are  well  bred,  two  litters  per  year  can  be  reared 
without  much  difficulty. 

For  a  short  time  before  farrowing  it  is  not  best  to  feed 
very  much  grain  feed.  Thin  slops  are  much  better  than  any 
other  kind  of  a  ration.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
very  necessary  to  keep  the  digestive  system  cool  and  to  feed 
feeds  which  are  very  easily  digested.  A  couple  of  days  pre- 


CARE   OF   BROOD    SOWS.  275 

vious  to  farrowing  from  four  to  eight  ounces  of  Epsom  salts 
should  be  fed  in  the  feed.  This  will  prove  beneficial  in  cool- 
ing the  system  and  thus  prevent  milk  fever  or  inflammation 
of  the  udder.  After  farrowing,  the  pigs  should  be  left  with 
the  mother.  The  mother  should  be  fed  on  feeds  conducive 
to  the  production  of  milk.  After  farrowing,  the  sow  should 
have  a  light  ration  in  the  form  of  a  mash  composed  of  wheat 
bran  and  shorts  or  their  equivalent,  gradually  increasing 
up  to  the  tenth  day,  when  the  sow  can  be  put  on  full  ration, 
and  ground  corn  and  oats  in  equal  parts  can  be  added  to 
the  ration  already  mentioned.  The  sow  should  be  fed,  too, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  litter.  Other  rations  suited  to 
the  same  purpose  are  skim-milk  and  shorts;  skim-milk,  shorts 
and  corn;  skim-milk,  shorts  and  oats;  skim-milk,  shorts  and 
barley.  Where  two  litters  per  year  are  to  be  reared  the 
young  pigs  should  not  remain  on  the  mother  more  than  four 
or  five  weeks.  Where  they  are  taught  to  use  other  feed  at 
an  early  age,  they  will  do  just  as  well  in  a  separate  pen 
after  four  or  five  weeks  of  age,  as  they  will  on  the  mother. 
At  weaning  it  is  best  to  remove  all  pigs  at  once.  If  the 
udder  is  inclined  to  be  full  and  has  a  tendency  to  cake,  it 
should  be  milked  out  by  hand.  The  practice  of  allowing  a 
few  of  the  pigs  to  remain  on  the  dam  for  a  few  days  longer 
is  often  very  injurious  to  the  mother.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  each  and  every  pig  has  its  own  teat,  thus  will  not 
drain  all  the  others.  In  addition  to  the  points  which  have 
been  mentioned  above  good  general  care  and  management 
should  be  given  to  the  dam.  She  should  always  be  well  fed 
and  fed  on  feeds  conducive  to  health. 


LECTURE  LXX. 


FEED  AND  CARE   OF  YOUNG   PIGS   FROM    BIRTH    UNTIL 
READY    FOR    FATTENING. 

The  brood  sow  should  be  placed  in  a  comfortable  pen  a 
few  days  before  farrowing.  If  the  weather  is  inclined  to  be 
cool,  this  is  especially  desirable,  while  on  the  other  hand  if 
the  weather  is  warm  sometimes  she  may  be  allowed  to 
run  in  a  pasture  lot.  For  a  young  brood  sow,  however,  or 
even  for  any  age  of  a  sow,  it  is  safer  to  have  her  in  a  small 
pen  which  has  been  especially  prepared  for  farrowing  pur- 
poses. She  should  be  accustomed  to  this  pen,  so  that  it 
will  not  be  strange  or  different  to  her.  A  fender  which  can 
be  made  from  a  2x6  or  8-inch  scantling  should  be  placed 
along  the  wall  about  seven  or  eight  inches  from  the  floor. 
This  affords  a  means  of  protection  by  preventing  the  mother 
from  lying  on  the  young,  for  in  such  a  way  she  cannot  get 
within  six  or  seven  inches  of  the  wall  and  they  will  not  be 
crushed  but  will  have  an  opportunity  to  escape  without  any 
injury.  This  point  will  often  save  the  lives  of  several  of  the 
little  pigs.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  it  is  best  that  the  bed 
should  be  warmed  properly  and  properly  dried.  For  bed- 
ding, cut  straw  or  chaff  is  preferable  to  long  straw.  Long 
straw  makes  it  hard  for  the  little  fellows  to  get  around,  thus 
more  or  less  liability  of  their  being  crushed  by  the  mother. 
Cut  straw  also  takes  up  the  moisture  much  more  readily 
than  does  the  long  straw.  If  any  of  the  little  pigs  are 
chilled  at  farrowing  time  they  should  be  removed  from  the 
pen  and  taken  to  a  warm  place  until  they  have  recovered. 
It  is  not  a  good  policy,  however,  to  keep  the  little  ones  away 
from  the  mother  too  much  of  the  time.  By  so  doing,  and 
especially  with  a  young  mother,  there  is  some  danger  of  her 
not  owning  her  young.  Provision  should  be  made  so  that 
the  little  fellows  may  have  an  opportunity  to  secure  some 
feed  in  addition  to  that  provided  by  the  mother  as  soon  as 
they  are  old  enough  to  use  the  same.  A  little  trough  in 
which  some  whole  milk  is  supplied  will  prove  very  attractive 


CARE    OF    YOUNG    PIGS.  277 

to  the  pigs.  The  whole  milk  may  be  gradually  changed,  how- 
ever, to  a  skim-milk  ration,  but  the  skim-milk  must  be  sweet 
to  prevent  scours  or  bowel  trouble.  As  soon  as  they  take  to 
the  skim-milk  a  little  shorts  may  be  added  to  the  same. 
In  this  way  the  young  pigs  may  get  a  great  deal  of  their 
ration  required  for  maintenance  by  the  time  they  are  four 
or  five  weeks  of  age,  thus  making  the  weaning  period  an 
easy  one.  This  is  especially  beneficial  where  two  litters  per 
year  are  to  be  reared.  It  is  then  very  desirable  to  have  the 
young  pigs  weaned  at  an  early  age,  say  four  or  five  weeks. 
After  weaning,  the  same  ration  as  that  which  was  fed  before 
weaning  may  be  fed  to  advantage.  Nothing  seems  to  give 
better  results  for  the  young  pigs  at  first  than  a  ration  of  milk 
and  shorts  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  shorts  to 
three  or  four  parts  of  skim-milk.  Feed  them  at  least  three 
times  a  day.  Better  results  may  be  obtained  if  they  are  fed 
four  times  a  day  for  the  first  month.  During  the  spring  and 
summer  season  they  should  be  allowed  the  run  of  a  good  blue 
grass,  red  clover,  or  alfalfa  pasture.  Nothing  seems  to  give 
better  results  than  blue  grass  or  alfalfa  in  the  growth  and 
development  of  young  pigs.  If  blue  grass,  red  clover  or 
alfalfa  cannot  be  supplied,  some  forage  crop  such  as  that 
mentioned  in  the  previous  lecture  should  be  provided.  As 
they  get  older  a  ration  of  shorts  may  be  fed  with  some  corn 
added  to  the  ration.  Corn  is  not  so  conducive  to  growth 
but  is  an  excellent  feed  for  fattening  purposes.  Some  oil 
meal  added  to  the  corn  ration  will  also  prove  good  in  that 
it  will  have  a  favorable  influence  on  the  digestive  system  of 
the  animal.  Sweet  corn  may  be  fed  in  conjunction  with 
grain  ration  during  the  fall  months.  It  seems  to  answer  an 
excellent  purpose.  Squashes,  mangels  or  some  other  kinds 
of  root  crops  may  also  be  used  to  advantage.  Where  these 
are  fed  it  is  better  to  have  them  cooked  or  steamed  and 
mixed  with  the  grain  ration. 

One  thing  which  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  is  the 
importance  of  having  clean  dry  quarters  for  young  pigs. 
Filthy  quarters  are  very  injurious  to  the  health  of  these 
little  fellows  and  prevent  their  proper  growth  and  develop- 
ment. The  pens  should  be  so  arranged  that  there  will  be 
an  abundance  of  sunshine. 

Where  two  litters  per  year  are  to  be  reared,  the  fall 
litter  should  come  early  enough  in  the  season  so  as  to  have 
made  considerable  growth  before  the  cold  weather  arrives. 


278  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

In  this  respect  they  should  farrow  at  least  by  the  1st  of  Sep- 
tember. These  farrows  should  be  given  proper  care  and 
attention  until  the  1st  of  December  and  then  placed  in  warm 
dry  quarters  and  well  fed,  and  should  make  good  gains  dur- 
ing the  cold  weather.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  they  come  late 
in  the  fall  and  are  exposed  to  the  cold  weather  and  improp- 
erly fed  and  housed,  poor  gains  will  be  realized. 

During  the  winter  season  it  is  especially  desirable  to 
feed  some  steamed  or  cooked  food.  This  seems  to  keep  the 
system  in  good  shape.  Pigs  which  are  being  fed  on  steamed 
or  cooked  food  must  have  warm  comfortable  quarters  and 
must  not  be  exposed  to  extreme  cold  at  any  time,  else  inflam- 
mation may  occur.  Hogs  which  are  confined  to  warm  quar- 
ters part  of  the  time  and  then  exposed  to  real  cold  for  a  few 
minutes  are  very  susceptible  to  inflammation  and  other  such 
troubles.  In  some  instances  where  young  pigs  are  suckling 
the  mother,  especially  if  the  mother  is  a  real  heavy  milker 
and  they  are  confined  to  small  quarters,  trouble  may  be 
experienced  through  "thumps."  This  trouble  may  be  pre- 
vented by  giving  them  more  exercise.  If  it  is  during  the 
winter  season,  while  the  sun  is  shining  bright,  they  should 
be  allowed  out  in  front  of  the  pen  for  an  hour  or  so  each  day. 
Plenty  of  fresh  air  and  exercise  will  always  be  found  a  good 
preventive  for  "thumps." 


LECTURE  LXXI. 


FEED,    CARE    AND    SELECTION     OF    STOCK    INTENDED 
FOR   BREEDING   PURPOSES. 

In  selecting  stock  for  breeding  purposes  there  are  several 
points  which  must  be  given  due  attention.  One  of  the  first 
and  most  important  is  good  breeding.  Another  point  which 
we  must  consider  is  conformation — that  is,  that  in  addition 
to  good  breeding,  the  pigs  to  be  selected  should  possess  the 
desirable  conformation  or  form  which  is  demanded  of  the 
class  to  which  they  belong.  Another  point  to  be  observed 
in  the  selection  of  stock  intended  for  breeding  purposes  is 
that  they  be  from  mature  stock,  strong  in  constitution  and 
of  good  size.  It  is  a  very  poor  policy  to  select  breeding  ani- 
mals from  immature  sires  or  dams,  or  from  sows  of  weakened 
constitutions  or  lacking  in  size. 

By  good  breeding  we  mean  stock  descended  from  animals 
which  have  for  generations  possessed  the  desirable  qualities 
which  go  to  make  up  a  real  good  market  hog.  Nothing  but 
pure  bred  sires  should  be  used.  The  dams  should  also  be 
pure  bred.  Where  grade  sires  are  used,  breeding  is  more 
or  less  a  lottery.  Another  point  which  should  be  considered 
in  selecting  stock  for  breeding  purposes  is  to  select  from 
those  strains  or  families  which  are  noted  for  their  prolificacy. 
This  is  a  point  in  which  a  great  many  of  our  breeds,  and 
especially  families  of  certain  breeds,  are  very  deficient.  In 
conformation  the  young  pig  should  have  indication  of  devel- 
oping in  the  desired  form;  that  is,  it  should  have  length 
of  body,  depth  of  body,  smoothness  of  shoulders,  width  of 
back,  loin  and  hindquarters,  should  stand  squarely  on  its 
legs,  should  have  indications  of  having  bone  and  should  have 
the  characteristics  of  the  breed  to  which  it  belongs.  It  must 
indicate  constitution  by  having  good  depth  and  width  of 
chest.  It  must  also  have  a  good  coat  of  hair — that  is,  a  thick, 
straight  coat.  Thin-haired  pigs  are  not  desirable,  as  thin 
hair  usually  goes  with  a  weak  constitution  and  lack  of  size. 


280  WYE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

After  having  selected  the  type  of  a  hog  desirable,  it  is 
all  important  that  this  animal  be  given  good  feed,  care  and 
attention.  It  must  be  fed  on  a  ration  conducive  to  the  de- 
velopment of  bone  and  muscle.  Breeding  hogs  differ  very 
much  from  fat  hogs.  They  are  expected  to  be  kept  until 
they  are  several  years  old,  therefore  must  possess  good  bone 
and  must  also  have  good  muscle.  This  calls  for  a  ration 
rich  in  nitrogenous  matter.  It  also  calls  for  a  ration  rich  in 
ash  matter.  This  being  the  case,  corn  being  a  ration  which 
is  deficient  in  nitrogen  and  ash,  should  form  but  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  ration  for  young  and  growing  animals.  Feeds 
rich  in  protein,  such  as  shorts,  oats,  gluten  feed,  oil  meal, 
alfalfa,  red  clover,  rape,  skim-milk,  etc.,  should  constitute 
the  major  portion  of  the  ration  fed.  Corn,  however,  while 
deficient  in  protein  and  ash,  may  be  fed  in  a  limited  amount, 
especially  when  properly  combined  with  the  other  feed  stuffs. 

These  young  pigs  must  be  liberally  fed,  as  it  is  all 
important  that  they  obtain  a  good  growth  at  an  early  age. 
They  should  be  separated  from  those  intended  for  fattening 
purposes  before  they  are  three  months  old.  They  require 
more  exercise  and  more  nitrogenous  feed  stuffs  than  those 
which  are  intended  for  fattening  purposes.  The  boars  should 
be  separated  from  the  sows  and  given  different  care  and 
treatment.  The  sows  should  be  forced  rapidly  and  should 
not  be  bred  before  they  are  at  least  eight  months  old.  The 
boars  should  also  be  fed  liberally  and  should  not  be  used 
for  breeding  purposes  until  they  are  at  least  eight  months 
old.  The  boar  should  not  be  used  very  heavily  the  first  year 
and  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  sows  should  be  served  by 
him  during  his  first  season.  This  is  an  important  matter, 
one  which  a  great  many  breeders  fail  to  give  proper  atten- 
tion. The  young  boar  especially,  and  the  young  sow,  too, 
should  be  given  a  liberal  amount  of  exercise.  This  is  a  very 
important  feature. 


LECTURE  LXXII. 


FATTENING    HOGS    FOR    MARKET. 

The  age  at  which  hogs  should  be  fattened  will  depend 
more  or  less  upon  the  market  demands  and  the  locality.  In 
.some  countries  and  in  different  sections  of  the  same  country 
we  find  that  there  are  differences  in  the  market  demands. 
As  a  general  rule  in  this  country  the  fat  or  lard  hog  has 
been  the  most  popular.  When  such  is  the  case  it  is  better 
to  market  hogs  at  the  weight  of  from  300  to  400  pounds. 
These  seem  to  meet  with  the  most  popular  favor  of  the  buy- 
ers. In  other  sections  of  the  country  and  in  other  markets 
where  the  bacon  type  of  hog  is  preferred  over  the  fat  or  lard 
hog,  they  must  be  marketed  at  an  earlier  age.  The  best 
weight  for  the  bacon  hog  is  between  160  and  220  pounds. 
They  do  not  require  to  be  nearly  as  fat  as  the  fat  or  lard 
hog;  still,  on  the  other  hand,  a  bacon  hog  is  by  no  means 
a  thin  animal.  They  should  have  a  covering  of  about  one 
inch  of  fat  over  the  back.  They  should  be  deep  sided  and 
Jong  sided,  and  must  be  firm  in  quality.  Where  the  bacon 
hog  is  desired,  as  a  general  rule  it  will  be  found  most  profit- 
able to  have  the  hogs  fattened  and  finished  for  market  at 
about  five  and  one-half  or  six  months  of  age.  Where  the  fat 
or  lard  hog  is  desired,  the  most  profitable  age  to  market  the 
same  in  order  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  market  would 
"be  about  eight  to  ten  months.  Hogs  of  this  age  should  weigh 
in  the  neighborhood  of  300  to  350  pounds.  As  a  general  rule, 
Tiowever,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  greatest  and  most  econom- 
ical gains,  especially  the  most  economical  gains,  are  made  on 
the  younger  animals.  This  is  one  point  in  favor  of  the  bacon 
"hog. 

The  season  of  the  year  at  which  the  fattening  should 
"be  done  will  depend  upon  various  conditions.  In  some  in- 
stances, in  fact  in  a  great  many  cases,  hogs  are  fattened 
during  the  fall  and  early  winter  months.  In  other  instances 
they  are  fattened  during  the  spring  and  early  summer 
months.  Generally  speaking,  the  most  economical  gains  can 


282  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

be  made  during  the  early  fall  or  spring  months.  The  weather 
is  then  not  too  cold  nor  too  warm — in  fact,  about  right  for 
the  best  gains.  In  real  cold  weather  a  considerable  amount 
of  the  feed  is  used  for  the  production  of  heat  to  supply  the 
heat  required  for  the  maintenance  of  the  animal  body.  In 
real  warm  weather,  on  the  other  hand,  a  considerable  amount 
of  feed  may  be  wasted.  Where  two  litters  per  year  are  to- 
be  reared  it  will  be  found  best  to  fatten  the  first  bunch  and 
market  them  during  the  months  of  September  and  October. 
The  second  litter  should  be  fattened  and  ready  for  market 
some  time  during  the  latter  part  of  March  or  the  month  of 
April.  These  are  things  which  each  and  every  feeder  must,, 
to  a  certain  extent,  control  himself. 

Concerning  the  various  kinds  of  feeds  which  are  to  be- 
used  in  the  fattening  of  hogs,  in  this  connection  we  must 
consider  the  feed  stuffs  which  are  available,  those  which  are 
home  grown  and  most  easily  grown,  those  which  are  most 
palatable  for  the  animals,  and,  lastly,  those  which  are  most 
economical.  All  of  these  factors  must  be  considered  in 
selecting  the  ration.  There  are  a  great  many  different  kinds 
of  rations,  comprised  of  different  combinations  of  feed  stuffs,, 
which  give  very  good  results.  One  important  factor  seems 
to  be  that  variety  be  supplied.  A  combination  of  feed  stuffs- 
always  gives  better  results  than  any  single  feed  stuff  when 
fed  alone. 

In  the  western  states  corn  must  be  the  basis,  and  form  a 
large  proportion  of  any  grain  ration  fed.  This  is  due  to  the- 
fact  that  corn  is  the  staple  grain  grown  in  this  country. 
Taking  it  one  year  with  another  it  is  the  most  economical 
feed  which  the  farmer  has  at  hand  for  swine  feeding  pur- 
poses. Corn,  however,  is  not  a  well  balanced  feed  for  young 
and  growing  hogs,  thus  should  be  fed  in  conjunction  with 
some  other  feed  stuffs  which  are  rich  in  those  compounds- 
such  as  protein  and  ash,  in  which  corn  is  deficient.  Corn  is- 
a  strictly  fattening  food.  For  hogs  which  are  a  year  or  a 
year  and  one-half  old,  and  which  are  to  be  fattened  in  a 
short  time,  perhaps  a  ration  of  corn  will  prove  as  economical 
and  give  as  heavy  returns  for  the  feed  consumed  as  any- 
other  feed  stuff  or  combination  of  feed  stuffs  that  can  bo- 
used. 

Hogs,  however,  as  a  general  rule  are  not  kept  until  a 
year  or  one  and  one-half  years  old  before  marketing,  but  are 
marketed  at  from  six  to  ten  months  of  age,  thus  should  be 


FATTENING   HOGS.  285 

fed  on  some  feed  stuff  which  is  not  only  adapted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  fat,  but  conducive  to  growth  as  well.  In  this 
respect  a  ration  of  corn  and  tankage,  fed  in  the  proportion 
of  four  or  five  parts  corn  meal  to  one  part  tankage;  or  a 
ration  of  corn  meal  and  gluten  feed,  equal  parts  by  weight, 
or  a  ration  of  corn  and  shorts,  equal  parts  by  weight;  or  a 
ration  of  one  part  corn,  one  part  barley  and  one  part  shorts 
by  weight,  or  a  ration  of  two  parts  corn  and  one  part  of 
either  wheat  or  shorts  by  weight,  when  fed  in  conjunction 
with  skim-milk,  will  give  excellent  results.  These  feeds  are 
especially  adapted  to  fall  or  winter  feeding.  During  the 
summer  months  the  most  economical  gains  can  usually  be 
secured  by  fattening  hogs  on  some  kind  of  pasture  or  forage 
supplied  in  some  other  way.  For  instance,  corn  when  fed  to 
hogs  which  have  a  run  of  good  clover  pasture,  alfalfa  pas- 
ture, blue  grass  pasture,  soy  beans,  rape,  cow  pea  pasture, 
and  a  mixture  of  peas,  oats  and  barley  which  had  been  sown 
early  in  the  season,  will  give  very  good  results.  The  forage 
crops  mentioned  are  all  rich  in  protein  and  seem  to  have  a 
favorable  influence  on  the  health  of  the  animals. 

No  one  feed  stuff  is  best  under  all  conditions.  Each  and 
every  man  must  be  governed  largely  in  this  respect  by  the 
feed  stuffs  available,  and  those  which  are  most  economical. 

Preparation  of  Feed  Stuffs. 

In  the  preparation  of  feed  stuffs  no  definite  rule  can  be 
recommended  which  will  answer  all  conditions.  Different 
kinds  of  feed  stuffs  and  different  ages  of  the  animals  will 
have  an  influence  in  this  respect.  During  the  fall  and  winter 
months,  especially  if  the  weather  is  somewhat  cold,  steam- 
ing or  cooking  feed  may  be  an  advantage  in  that  it  supplies 
the  same  in  a  warm  condition.  It  may  also  increase  the 
palatability  of  the  same.  During  the  spring  and  summer 
months  there  is  no  advantage  derived  from  steaming  or  cook- 
ing except  from  a  palatability  standpoint.  In  some  instances 
feed  stuffs  which  are  inclined  to  be  musty  may  be  made  very 
much  more  palatable  by  steaming  them.  Soaking  has  much 
the  same  influence  that  steaming  or  cooking  has,  and  seems 
to  be  much  more  economical  in  spring  or  summer  feeding. 

Feed  stuffs  which  have  a  hard  hull,  such  as  barley, 
should  be  ground,  or  if  not  ground,  should  be  soaked  for 


284  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

twelve  hours  or  steamed  before  feeding.  Where  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay  is  added  to  the  ration  during  the  fall  or  winter 
months  it  should  be  cut  up  very  fine,  steamed  and  added  to 
the  ration.  Hogs  which  are  being  fattened,  especially  if  they 
are  being  forced  for  a  quick  finish,  should  have  some  kind 
of  a  condiment.  This  will  aid  digestion  and  give  tone  to 
the  system.  In  this  respect,  sulphur  to  the  amount  of  one 
teaspoonful  every  two  or  three  weeks  has  sometimes  been 
found  to  be  very  beneficial.  Probably  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon and  at  the  same  time  beneficial  preparations  in  this 
respect  is  prepared  from  charcoal,  wood  ashes  and  certain 
other  adjuncts  which  are  considered  to  be  beneficial  to  the 
health  of  the  hogs  which  are  being  fattened.  The  following 
mixture  has  been  recommended :  Six  bushels  of  corn  cob 
charcoal  that  has  been  well  crushed,  or  three  bushels  of 
common  charcoal,  with  one  bushel  of  ashes,  eight  pounds  of 
salt,  and  two  quarts  of  air  slacked  lime.  Dissolve  one  and 
one-half  pounds  of  copperas  in  hot  water,  sprinkle  it  over 
the  mass  and  thoroughly  mix.  Put  this  into  self  feeding 
boxes  or  somewhere  where  it  will  be  protected  from  the 
weather,  and  let  the  pigs  partake  of  the  same  at  will. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  hogs  be  kept  in  comfort- 
able quarters,  well  bedded  and  clean.  They  should  be  fed 
all  that  they  will  eat  up  clean  within  a  half  hour  or  so  after 
feeding.  It  is  a  bad  mistake  to  feed  more  than  they  will 
clean  up  in  the  course  of  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour. 
It  is  much  better  to  underfeed  a  little  than  to  overfeed,  espe- 
cially during  warm  weather.  Any  feed  which  is  left  over 
during  warm  weather  soon  ferments,  and  thus  becomes  unde- 
sirable. The  feed  floors  and  troughs  should  be  kept  very 
clean.  In  fact,  most  good  swine  feeders  sweep  off  their 
floors  and  feed  troughs  every  morning  and  evening. 


LECTURE  LXXIII. 


PREPARATION    AND    FITTING    SWINE    FOR    SHOW    PUR- 
POSES. 

The  successful  fitting  and  preparation  of  swine  for  the 
show  rings  is  a  business  in  itself.  It  is  something  which  a 
man  must  study  carefully  for  himself;  and  to  a  large  meas- 
ure obtain  his  knowledge  by  experience  in  the  show  ring  and 
in  the  preparation  of  the  stock  for  the  same.  There  are  so 
many  little  details  which  must  be  observed  closely,  the 
neglect  of  which  may  mean  failure.  Perhaps  no  other  line 
of  live  stock  management  is  so  important,  and  especially  so 
hard  to  master,  as  the  proper  preparation  and  fitting  of  ani- 
mals for  exhibition  purposes.  The  first  consideration,  how- 
ever, is  to  use  good  judgment  in  selecting  animals  which 
have  some  outcome  to  them.  It  is  the  height  of  folly  to 
think  of  making  a  show  animal  out  of  an  animal  which  is 
not  bred  right.  This  is  the  first  and  most  important  essen- 
tial. Nothing  but  strong,  vigorous,  healthy  animals  should 
be  selected  in  the  hope  of  making  prize  winners.  They  must 
possess  good  form;  must  have  the  desired  form  of  either  the 
fat  or  the  bacon  hog,  depending  upon  which  class  they  belong 
to  in  this  connection.  For  instance,  with  the  bacon  hog 
it  would  be  useless  to  select  short,  chubby  youngsters  with 
the  hope  of  making  show  animals  out  of  them.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  fat  hog  class,  we  must  not  select  too 
short  and  chubby  animals  if  we  hope  to  be  successful.  Still, 
there  is  such  a  thing  as  selecting  too  long  and  rangy  an 
animal  as  to  make  a  good  fat  hog  for  show  purposes.  The 
medium  length  should  govern.  Perhaps  in  no  other  instance 
is  breed  type  so  important  as  in  those  animals  intended  for 
exhibition  purposes.  It  is  really  the  first  and  foremost  requi- 
site. There  are  various  breeds  of  fat  hogs  as  designated  by 
those  points  which  characterize  the  breed  type  of  the  animal 
in  question.  This  being  the  case,  no  animal  which  is  at  all 
deficient  from  a  breed  type  standpoint  should  be  selected  for 


286  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

exhibition  purposes.  It  would  simply  mean  time,  money  and 
labor  thrown  away. 

Constitution  is  a  very  important  point.  A  hog  which 
lias  a  good  constitution  will  withstand  a  great  deal  more 
exposure  and  will  make  better  gains  than  one  which  is  poor 
in  constitution.  Furthermore,  in  all  our  show  rings,  any 
weakness  in  this  respect  is  discriminated  against  most  se- 
verely. The  question  of  bone  is  an  important  one.  In  many 
instances  it  is  the  deciding  point  in  the  show  ring.  A  hog 
must  have  plenty  of  bone,  and  that  bone  must  be  of  good 
quality.  A  large,  coarse,  porous  bone  is  not  desirable.  We 
must  have  size  of  bone,  combined  with  quality.  The  feet 
and  legs  are  also  very  important.  A  hog  which  does  not 
stand  well  on  its  feet  and  legs  can  never  make  a  show  ani- 
mal. Crooked  legs,  long  pastern,  knock  knees,  and  all  other 
deviations  from  the  correct  form  should  be  discriminated 
against.  Quality  throughout  as  indicated  by  the  refinement 
of  the  head,  the  ears,  the  shoulders  and  the  bone,  is  a  very 
important  feature. 

The  coat  of  hair  must  not  be  overlooked,  as  a  swirly 
•coat  will  be  very  much  discriminated  against.  Curliness  or 
coarseness  of  coat  is  also  very  undesirable.  On  the  other 
Tiand,  a  thin  haired,  fine  haired  hog  is  always  discriminated 
against.  A  good  coat  should  be  medium  in  length,  straight 
and  very  thick,  and  should  be  of  the  desired  color  of  the 
ftreed  in  question. 

Having  all  these  points,  the  next  thing  to  be  considered 
is  the  feed  which  will  produce  proper  and  uniform  develop- 
ment It  is  very  important  that  the  hog  intended  for  show 
purposes  should  have  a  ration  which  is  properly  balanced. 
That  is,  one  which  will  supply  plenty  of  muscle,  building 
material,  and  an  abundance  of  bone.  In  this  respect  nothing 
seems  to  serve  a  much  better  purpose  than  shorts  combined 
with  oats,  or  shorts  and  barley,  and  shorts  with  a  small 
amount  of  corn.  The  best  ration,  however,  is  a  ration  of 
skim-milk  and  shorts,  with  perhaps  a  little  corn  or  barley 
added.  Sometimes  as  much  as  10%  oil  meal  is  added  to  the 
grain  ration.  It  seems  to  have  a  favorable  influence  upon 
the  health  of  the  animals,  and  also  adds  quality  in  finish  to 
the  same.  During  the  summer  months  a  good  clover  or 
alfalfa  pasture,  or,  in  fact,  any  forage  crop  which  is  rich 
in  protein,  makes  an  excellent  adjunct  to  the  grain  ration. 


FITTING  SWINE  FOR  SHOW.  287 

Hogs  intended  for  show  purposes  should  have  abundance 
of  exercise.  Many  good  show  hogs  are  ruined  by  being  con- 
fined in  too  small  a  pen  or  yard.  In  such  instances  they  go 
lame,  lose  the  power  of  their  limbs,  and  other  things  which 
would  be  very  objectionable  from  a  show  ring  standpoint. 

If  the  hogs  are  not  coming  on  quite  as  fast  as  you  would 
like  them  and  have  not  quite  as  much  finish  as  you  would 
like,  feed  some  whole  milk,  as  whole  milk  is  the  best  feed 
available  for  fitting  a  hog  for  show  purposes.  The  only 
objection  to  the  use  of  the  same  is  that  it  is  rather  costly. 
Next  to  whole  milk,  skim-milk  and  oil  meal  probably  stand 
second. 

Before  going  out  on  a  show  circuit  it  is  well  to  wash  the 
hogs  with  a  good  brush,  soap  and  luke-warm  water.  This  will 
clean  the  scurf  out  of  the  skin  and  present  the  skin  and  hair 
in  much  better  condition  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  Wash- 
ing, practiced  at  least  once  or  twice  a  week  before  com- 
mencing the  fair  circuit  would  be  found  to  be  very  helpful. 
The  feet  should  be  trimmed  and  kept  short.  This  will  aid 
very  much  in  keeping  the  hog  on  his  feet.  If  the  toes  are 
long  and  allowed  to  grow  out,  the  tendency  will  be  for  the 
animal  to  go  down  on  its  pasterns. 

Be  very  careful  of  the  ears  of  show  animals.  Do  not  nip 
them  or  put  in  labels  which  will  in  any  way  interfere  with 
the  shape  of  the  ear.  This  is  especially  true  in  those  breeds 
which  have  fine  ears  and  which  are  of  a  drooping  nature. 

Another  important  point  to  be  considered  is  the  training 
of  the  hogs  at  home  to  show  well.  No  man  should  take  a  hog 
out  to  an  exposition  or  fair  who  has  not  spent  some  time 
in  training  him  to  show  at  home.  A  hog  which  is  a  little 
inclined  to  be  weak  in  the  back  can  usually  be  held  up 
fairly  well  by  walking  him  around  and  keeping  the  head 
down.  The  general  tendency  is,  however,  for  a  hog  which 
has  never  been  shown  to  get  his  head  up  and  back  down 
when  it  is  taken  into  the  ring  with  strange  animals. 

In  the  show  business  every  little  point  counts,  and  each 
and  every  man  who  hopes  to  be  successful  will  be  very  much 
benefited  by  studying  all  the  little  details.  It  is  the  giving  of 
attention  to  details  that  counts  and  the  man  who  masters 
this  part  is  the  man  who  will  be  successful  in  show  yard 
contests. 


LECTURE  LXXIV. 


FORAGE   CROPS   FOR   SWINE. 

Forage  crops  of  some  kind  are  very  commonly  used  in. 
connection  with  the  production  of  pork.  Various  kinds  have 
been  used  in  this  country  and  some  kinds  are  especially 
suited  to  one  locality,  some  to  another.  One  of  the  main 
things  to  be  considered  in  planting  forage  crops  is  to  get  a 
variety  so  that  there  will  be  plenty  of  feed  throughout  the 
entire  season.  Many  men  make  the  mistake  of  confining 
themselves  to  some  one  crop,  thus  have  an  abundance  of  the 
same  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  while  at  other  seasons  of 
the  year  they  have  little  or  no  green  feed  for  their  hogs. 

The  use  of  green  feed  of  some  kind  either  during  the- 
summer  or  winter  months  has  proven  to  be  very  beneficial 
to  the  health  of  the  animals.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
case  of  breeding  animals  and  young  stock  intended  for  breed- 
ing purposes.  It  seems  to  be  necessary  to  supply  forage  of 
some  kind  to  animals  intended  for  breeding  purposes.  Forage 
crops  also  serve  another  purpose.  They  are  very  valuable 
in  balancing  the  ration.  This  is  especially  true  in  sections 
of  the  country  where  corn  is  the  staple  grain  crop  grown. 
Corn,  while  rich  in  carbonaceous  matter  and  very  valuable 
from  a  fattening  standpoint,  does  not  contain  enough  protein 
and  ash  for  the  proper  development  of  bone  and  muscle. 
Most  of  our  forage  crops,  especially  those  belonging  to  the 
legume  family,  are  very  rich  in  protein  and  ash,  thus  make 
an  excellent  adjunct  to  the  corn  ration.  Alfalfa,  clover,  soy 
beans,  cow  peas,  and  the  Canadian  field  pea  are  all  very 
valuable  in  this  respect. 

As  previously  mentioned,  it  is  very  important  to  supply  a 
variety  of  forage  crops  in  order  that  there  may  be  an  abund- 
ance of  green  feed  at  any  and  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Some 
men  who  are  very  successful  in  the  swine  breeding  business 
use  rye,  which  has  been  sown  the  previous  fall,  to  supply 
the  earliest  green  feed  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  When  rye 
is  sown  in  the  month  of  September  it  furnishes  an  excellent 


FORAGE  CROPS  FOR  SWINE.  289 

pasture  very  early  in  the  season.  It  can  be  used  for  a  month 
or  two.  It  is  especially  palatable  and  very  much  relished  by 
the  animals  while  it  is  young  and  tender.  After  it  has  ob- 
tained some  height  the  straw  becomes  rank  and  unpalatable. 
It  should  either  then  be  allowed  to  ripen,  or  be  plowed  under 
and  replaced  by  some  other  crop  which  will  furnish  green 
feed  later  in  the  season.  After  that  blue  grass  pas- 
ture, red  clover  or  alfalfa  will  furnish  the  next  crop 
for  the  spring  months.  Blue  grass  pasture  does 
very  nicely  at  any  season  of  the  year  providing 
there  is  enough  of  it.  Most  men  make  a  mistake 
by  pasturing  hogs  on  the  blue  grass  pasture  lot  by  having 
too  many  hogs  for  the  amount  of  pasture.  It  is  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  mineral  matter,  thus  makes  an  excellent  feed  to 
add  to  the  corn  ration.  Red  clover,  where  it  can  be  had, 
makes  one  of  the  most  acceptable  forage  crops  that  can  be 
grown  in  this  country.  It  is  very  rich  in  protein  and  ash 
matter,  thus  an  ideal  food  to  feed  in  conjunction  with  corn 
or  barley  for  the  proper  development  of  the  young  animal. 
In  the  spring  of  the  year  it  does  very  nicely,  but  it  cannot  be 
pastured  continuously,  as  during  the  months  of  July  and 
August  it  becomes  very  coarse  and  fibrous,  thus  unpalatable 
to  the  animals.  If  after  it  has  been  pastured  a  month  or  so 
the  hogs  are  taken  off  the  same,  and  then  stubble  is  cut 
fairly  close  to  the  ground,  a  second  crop  will  grow  up  and 
make  a  fairly  good  pasture  later  on  in  the  season.  In  this 
way  some  swine  men  are  able  to  get  a  couple  and  in  some 
instances  three  crops  of  red  clover  in  one  year. 

In  most  sections  of  the  country  where  alfalfa  can  be 
grown  it  proves  to  be  an  excellent  feed.  It  will  probably  fur- 
nish more  feed  to  the  acre  than  any  other  crop  which  can  be 
grown.  It  is  very  rich  in  protein.  In  this  respect  it  is 
richer  than  bran  or  shorts.  It  is  also  rich  in  ash  matter, 
thus  makes  an  excellent  adjunct  to  feed  in  connection  with 
the  corn  ration.  When  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  red 
clover,  that  is,  cut  at  intervals  of  four  or  five  weeks,  several 
crops  per  season  may  be  obtained  from  the  land. 

Peas  have  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  swine 
feeding  purposes.  They  are  used  especially  in  Canada  and 
to -some  extent  in  the  United  States.  They  furnish  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  feed  and  are  very  similar  in  composition 
to  red  clover  and  alfalfa.  The  English  vetch  is  also  used 


290  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

and  is  much  the  same  from  a  feeding  standpoint  as  peas.  A 
mixture  of  oats  and  barley,  equal  parts;  or,  one  part  oats, 
one  part  barley,  and  one  part  peas;  or  two  parts  oats  and 
one  part  peas,  is  sown  in  many  sections  of  the  country  and 
used  as  forage  crop  for  swine.  It  makes  a  very  good  feed  for 
a  short  time.  If  different  pieces  of  ground  are  sown  at  in- 
tervals of  two  or  three  weeks,  a  very  good  series  of  forage 
crops  may  be  provided  in  this  way.  Cow  peas  and  soy 
beans  are  both  very  rich  in  protein  and  make  an  excellent 
feed  in  any  locality  where  they  can  be  grown.  They  require 
a  fairly  warm  climate,  thus  do  not  seem  to  do  very  well  in 
the  northern  states.  In  the  southern,  however,  they  stand 
in  the  very  front  rank.  Rape  has  been  used  quite  commonly 
and  is  grown  very  generally  throughout  Canada  and  the 
northern  states.  When  sown  broadcast  or  when  drilled  in 
rows  two  feet  apart  it  furnishes  an  abundance  of  green  feed. 
It  makes  an  excellent  hog  pasture  and  furnishes  as  much  or 
more  feed  than  any  other  forage  crop  that  can  be  grown. 
Experienced  swine  feeders,  however,  do  not  seem  to  like  it 
quite  so  well  as  red  clover  or  alfalfa. 

Sorghum  is  grown  in  many  sections  of  the  country  and 
furnishes  a  very  good  feed  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
season.  To  get  the  greatest  returns  from  a  crop  of  sorghum 
it  should  not  be  pastured,  but  should  be  allowed  to  grow  up 
and  cut  and  fed  to  the  hogs  in  small  lots.  Where  it  is 
pastured,  there  is  a  great  waste,  as  much  of  the  sorghum  is 
trampled  under  the  feet  of  the  animals. 

The  feeds  mentioned  furnish  a  variety  of  forage  crops 
during  the  summer  months.  It  is  very  important,  however, 
for  the  man  who  has  a  large  breeding  herd  that  he  make 
some  provision  for  succulent  feed  during  the  winter  months. 
This  may  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  roots,  such  as  turnips, 
mangels,  carrots,  sugar  beets,  etc.  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  squash  and  pumpkins  are  grown  quite  largely  for 
swine  feeding  during  the  fall  months.  Some  feed  them  in  the 
raw  state;  others  steam  them  and  feed  them  in  conjunction 
with  grain.  Theodore  Louis,  of  Louisville,  Wisconsin,  one 
of  the  most  prominent  and  successful  swine  men  on  the 
continent,  always  grows  an  acre  of  squashes  for  his  hogs 
each  year.  He  feeds  some  of  them  in  the  raw  state,  but 
most  of  the  squashes  are  fed  with  grain  after  being  steamed 
for  a  couple  of  hours.  In  this  way  he  claims  he  is  able  to 


FORAGE  CROPS  FOR  SWINE.  291 

get  excellent  results  and  to  make  very  heavy  gains  on  his 
fattening  swine. 

Silage  has  been  used  to  some  extent  as  a  succulent  food 
during  the  winter  months.  On  account  of  its  large  water 
content  a  great  deal  of  other  feed  must  be  fed  in  addition 
to  the  same  if  good  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

In  summarizing  results  of  the  work  of  the  different  ex- 
periment stations  it  would  seem  that  red  clover  stands  about 
first  in  the  list  of  forage  crops,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  sup- 
plies an  abundance  of  protein  and  ash;  also  that  it  can  be 
grown  over  a  very  wide  area  of  country.  Next  to  red  clover 
rape  stands  about  second.  After  rape,  a  mixture  of  peas,  oats 
and  barley,  or  alfalfa,  stands  about  third.  In  the  southern 
states  cow  peas  and  soy  beans  seem  to  have  the  preference. 

In  growing  the  forage  crops  it  is  not  necessary  to  grow 
over  two  or  three  kinds,  but  it  is  very  important  that  the 
crops  be  so  planted  or  arranged  that  a  variety  of  succulent 
feeds  will  always  be  available.  Blue  grass  makes  an  ex- 
cellent feed  during  the  early  months,  and  also  makes  a 
very  good  feed  during  the  fall  months,  but  it  ripens  during 
the  summer  months,  thus  it  is  not  very  palatable  to  the 
swine. 


LECTURE  LXXV. 


PREVENTION    OF    DISEASE    IN    SWINE. 

Of  all  the  various  classes  of  stock  produced  upon  the 
farm,  no  class  has  been  more  remunerative  to  the  farmers 
of  this  country  than  swine.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
will  produce  more  pounds  of  meat  from  a  bushel  of  corn 
or  one  hundred  pounds  of  any  feed  stuff  than  any  other 
class  of  animals.  At  the  present  day  one  of  the  most  serious 
troubles  which  the  farmer  who  grows  swine  has  to  contend 
with  is  that  of  disease.  Disease  in  its  various  forms  as  it 
attacks  swine,  causes  the  farmers  of  this  country  several 
million  dollars  of  losses  annually.  This  being  the  case  it  is 
very  important  that  every  precaution  possible  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  same.  Swine,  unlike  other  animals,  do 
not  respond  readily  to  treatment  once  they  become  affected 
with  any  kind  of  disease.  With  other  animals  it  is  possible 
to  treat  them  and  in  many  instances  save  a  large  percentage 
when  disease  of  any  kind  appears  in  the  flock.  The  opposite 
is  true  in  the  swine  herd,  thus  we  readily  see  the  necessity 
of  using  every  precaution  in  preventing  disease. 

For  many  years  we  were  somewhat  in  the  dark  as  to 
the  cause  of  disease  in  swine.  Science,  however,  has  given 
us  much  light  on  this  subject.  It  is  now  very  generally  under- 
stood that  most  forms  of  disease  are  due  to  a  germ  which  can 
be  very  readily  transferred  from  place  to  place.  Since  this 
is  the  basis  of  a  large  amount  of  the  trouble  we  can  readily 
see  the  importance  of  using  every  precaution  possible  to 
keep  the  animals  in  a  cleanly  condition.  Most  of  these  germs 
or  bacteria  thrive  and  make  their  greatest  growth  under 
filthy  conditions.  Scientists  claim  that  most  germs  cannot 
withstand  sunlight,  thus  the  importance  of  having  plenty  of 
sunlight  in  the  yards  and  pens  which  are  used  for  swine 
breeding  or  feeding  purposes.  These  pens  should  be  thorough- 
ly cleaned  and  disinfected  very  often.  By  following  such  a 
practice  the  health  of  the  herd  can  be  very  much  improved. 


PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE.  293 

Another  point  which  has  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  health 
of  the  animal  is  the  kind  of  feed  fed.  Some  feed  stuffs  seem 
to  be  very  influential  in  keeping  the  digestive  system  in 
good  order.  Others  have  the  opposite  effect. 

Among  the  various  feed  stuffs  which  are  not  conducive 
to  the  best  health  of  the  animals  may  be  mentioned  corn. 
Still,  corn  is  used  in  many  instances  as  the  sole  grain  ration 
or  almost  the  sole  grain  ration  for  swine.  A  variety  of 
feeds  is  claimed  to  be  very  beneficial  in  this  respect.  Oil 
meal,  roots,  forage  crops,  shorts,  skim-milk  and  other  such 
feeds  are  all  supposed  to  have  a  favorable  influence  upon 
the  digestive  system,  thus  are  beneficial  in  keeping  the  ani- 
mals in  good  health. 

Another  important  point  from  a  health  standpoint  is 
exercise.  Where  swine  are  confined  in  small,  damp,  filthy 
yards  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  prevent  disease.  The  sur- 
roundings are  just  right  and  if  disease  should  come  in  the 
neighborhood  it  makes  an  excellent  place  for  it  to  start. 
Swine  are  not  unlike  people  in  many  respects.  Some  people, 
especially  those  who  are  in  good  health,  are  oftentimes  ex- 
posed to  typhoid  fever  and  other  germ  diseases  without 
danger.  On  the  other  hand,  other  people  who  are  not  in 
good  health  when  exposed  to  any  such  disease  are  very 
susceptible  to  the  same.  The  same  thing  is  true  in  the  case 
of  swine. 

Another  important  point  which  will  be  found  to  be  very 
helpful  in  case  disease  should  break  out  in  the  flock  is  that 
of  having  the  hogs  scattered  over  the  farm.  By  so  doing 
disease  may  break  out  in  one  place  and  the  remainder  of  the 
hogs  on  the  farm  may  not  be  affected  at  all.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  they  are  bunched  up  in  small  yards  and  disease 
should  break  out,  in  many  instances  the  entire  flock  will  be 
affected  before  it  is  noticed.  In  such  an  instance  the  only 
thing  to  do  is  to  separate  the  hogs  as  soon  as  the  disease  is 
noticed,  disinfect  all  thoroughly  and  transfer  them  to  other 
yards. 

Worms  cause  much  trouble  among  swine.  They  may  be 
prevented  by  judicious  feeding.  They  may  be  cured  by  many 
of  the  well  known  worm  powders  which  are  advertised  in 
our  agricultural  papers. 

In  introducing  or  purchasing  new  stock  upon  the  farm 
the  greatest  precaution  possible  should  be  taken  else  disease 


294  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

will  oftentimes  be  brought  in  in  this  way.  No  animal  should 
come  upon  any  farm  without  being  thoroughly  disinfected 
and  then  quarantined  for  two  or  three  weeks  before  being 
allowed  near  the  rest  of  the  animals.  In  this  way  should  the 
animal  be  affected  with  any  disease,  it  will  have  plenty  of 
time  to  develop  the  same.  Many  men  have  brought  hog 
cholera  and  other  very  disastrous  diseases  upon  their  farms 
in  this  way.  They  have  purchased  a  hog  from  what  was 
supposed  to  be  a  healthy  flock.  They  have  taken  the  same 
home  and  put  him  with  the  rest  of  their  swine.  In  ten 
days  or  two  weeks  the  animal  will  show  symptoms  of  sick- 
ness. This  is  usually  followed  by  other  hogs  showing  the 
same  symptoms.  By  a  little  carelessness  in  this  way  often- 
times an  entire  herd  of  swine  has  been  wiped  out  by  hog 
cholera.  The  hog  in  question  may  have  come  from  a  healthy 
farm,  but  in  being  shipped  over  some  railroad  may  have  been 
exposed  to  cholera,  thus  contracted  the  disease.  A  hog  which 
has  been  brought  upon  the  farm,  thoroughly  disinfected, 
quarantined  for  three  weeks  and  then  appeared  to  be  in 
perfect  health,  can  safely  be  introduced  into  the  herd. 

On  each  and  every  farm  there  should  be  some  provision 
made  for  dipping  swine.  This  not  only  proves  to  be  an 
easy  and  effectual  method  of  disinfecting  animals  which  are 
being  brought  upon  the  farm,  but  it  also  furnishes  a  good  way 
for  disposing  of  lice.  Every  swine  herd  should  be  dipped 
at  least  twice  a  year,  in  the  spring  and  in  the  fall.  There  are 
very  few  herds  of  swine  that  are  not  affected  at  some  time 
or  other  with  lice.  Some  recommend  sprinkling  or  spraying 
for  lice.  This  is  not  a  very  good  way  to  overcome  the  dif- 
ficulty, as  the  lice  are  usually  found  on  the  head  close  to  the 
ears,  under  the  arm  pits,  and  in  other  secluded  places  where 
spraying  could  not  in  any  way  reach  them.  Swine  thus 
affected,  when  put  through  a  dipping  tank  will  be  free  from 
all  trouble.  There  are  several  patent  dips  on  the  market, 
such  as  Zenoleum  and  Chloro-Naphtholeum,  which  give  good 
results. 

In  addition  to  all  that  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  im- 
portance of  having  clean  quarters,  of  feeding  the  right  kind 
of  feed  stuffs,  of  giving  an  abundance  of  exercise,  of  keeping 
the  hogs  in  small  numbers  in  one  place,  of  providing  means 
for  killing  worms,  of  quarantining  animals  which  are  to  be 
introduced  upon  the  farm,  and  of  dipping  for  lice  and  other 


PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE.  295 

such  troubles,  we  must  pay  due  attention  to  the  vigor  and 
constitution  of  the  animal.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid 
upon  constitution  and  vigor  in  selecting  stock  for  breeding 
purposes.  Animals  which  are  strong  in  constitution  can 
always  withstand  disease  much  better  than  those  which  are 
weak  in  this  respect.  Constitution  is  indicated  by  the  width 
and  depth  of  the  chest,  by  width  of  head  and  general  active- 
ness  on  the  part  of  the  animal.  In  case  hogs  are  troubled 
with  disease  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  give  them  medicine 
or  anything  else  which  will  prove  very  helpful.  About  the 
only  thing  that  seems  to  be  feasible  is  to  feed  a  ration  which 
can  be  easily  digested,  keep  them  in  clean  quarters,  thorough- 
ly disinfect  the  pens,  and  let  the  disease  run  its  course. 

For  hogs  which  are  very  sick  from  disease  of  any  kind 
perhaps  no  kind  of  feed  is  more  palatable  and  easily  digested 
than  whole  milk.  It  is  an  excellent  feed  and  has  oftentimes 
proven  to  be  very  beneficial  in  bringing  hogs  through  a 
spell  of  sickness.  Next  to  the  whole  milk  comes  skim-milk 
and  oat  meal  or  a  little  shorts.  They  must  not  be  fed  too 
much  grain.  The  ration  must  be  thin,  and  the  more  milk 
supplied  the  better  the  chances  for  their  recovery. 


LECTURE   LXXVI. 


PENS  AND  SHEDS  SUITABLE   FOR   PIGS. 

Pigs  like  other  domestic  animals,  make  their  greatest 
and  most  economical  gains  when  provided  with  proper  shelter 
— shelter  from  the  stinging  blasts  and  frosty  airs  of  winter, 
and  from  the  scorching  sun  of  summer.  Experience  has 
taught  swine  raisers  that  it  will  not  pay  them  to  withhold 
shelter  and  comfort  from  their  brood  sows,  growing  and 
fattening  pigs,  in  either  winter  or  summer.  It  is  necessary 
that  some  sort  of  shelter  be  afforded. 

It  is  impossible  in  this  lecture  to  go  into  details  and 
show  plans  for  pig  houses  that  will  suit  all  men  under  all 
conditions.  The  most  we  can  hope  to  do  is  to  point  out 
the  fundamental  principles  that  should  be  observed  in  the 
location  and  building  of  such  structures,  while  each  individual 
will  have  to  master  these  principles  and  build  to  suit  his  own 
conditions. 

In  the  colder  parts  of  the  northern  states  and  Canada 
much  more  protection  would  have  to  be  given  than  would  be 
necessary  in  the  less  severe  sections  of  the  middle  west. 
But  even  there  warm,  comfortable  quarters  must  be  provided 
where  little  pigs  are  expected  in  the  fall,  winter  or  early 
spring  months,  and  some  sort  of  shelter  should  also  be 
provided  against  the  hot,  scorching  sun,  especially  in  the 
south. 

Pig  houses  should  be  built  on  high,  dry  ground  where  the 
water  from  rains  and  melting  snow  will  easily  run  away. 
Perfect  drainage  should  be  secured,  either  naturally  or  by 
grading.  Not  only  should  the  pen  be  properly  located  so  as 
to  affect  drainage,  but  care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  placed 
so  that  it  will  have  the  protection  of  a  shelter  belt  if  such 
be  present.  Another  important  point  to  be  observed  is  that 
it  be  placed  so  that  prevailing  winds  will  not  carry  the  pig 
pen  odors  into  the  dwelling  house. 

In  all  our  operations  with  live  stock  economy  must  be 
considered,  and  in  the  building  of  a  pig  house  cheapness  of 


PENS  FOB  TIGS.  -297 

cost  is  a  very  important  consideration  which  must  be  reg- 
ulated by  the  amount  of  money  which  the  builder  wishes  to 
use  for  such  a  purpose.  Very  useful  buildings  that  will  serve 
-every  purpose  can  be  erected  at  a  very  moderate  outlay, 
while,  if  a  man  has  the  money  to  spare,  there  need  be  no 
limit  to  the  luxurious  quarters  which  he  can  provide. 

Another  important  point  is  that  of  convenience.  Prepar- 
ing feeds  and  feeding  the  same,  cleaning  out  troughs  and 
pens,  caring  in  breeding,  care  for  and  management  of  sows 
at  mating  and  farrowing  time,  feeding  little  pigs,  loading  pigs 
for  market,  lighting,  ventilating  and  many  other  things  which 
might  be  mentioned  make  the  swine  herder's  duties  manifold. 
Farm  labor  is  not  plentiful  now.  It  is  both  scarce  and 
costly,  and  in  planning  the  pig  pen  it  should  be  so  arranged 
.as  to  make  easy  the  carrying  out  of  the  little  details  that 
^o  to  make  pig  raising  both  a  pleasure  and  a  profit. 

Comfort  and  health  are  the  main  objects  to  consider 
-after  cheapness  and  convenience,  and  these  are  secured  by 
providing  quarters  that  are  clean,  light,  dry,  warm,  well 
ventilated  and  free  from  drafts. 

Cleanliness  is  a  point  which  must  receive  attention, 
for  it  is  upon  this  that  much  of  the  success  of  hog  raising 
depends.  Dirty  pens  and  troughs  are  breeding  places 
for  all  sorts  of  disease  producing  germs.  Board 
floors  with  cracks  are  harboring  places  for  filth  and  are 
.attended  with  all  kinds  of  unsanitary  conditions. 

Sunlight  must  be  let  into  the  pen  in  abundance.  In  its 
presence  germs  cannot  live.  Where  it  is  denied,  sickness 
is  sure  to  come.  Let  the  pen  have  numerous  large  windows 
in  the  south  and  east  sides  where  the  sun  shines  most  of 
•the  day. 

A  damp  pen  is  sure  to  bring  disaster  to  the  hog  raising 
business.  Rheumatism,  lung  troubles  and  numerous  other 
ailments  are  the  result  of  such  a  condition.  Cement  or 
•stone  walls  are  very  cold  and  the  moisture  inside  the  pens 
condenses  on  such  walls  and  causes  endless  trouble.  Board 
walls,  unless  constructed  with  a  dead  air  space,  are  almost 
as  bad.  Bank  pig  pens  are  very  undesirable  for  the  same 
reasons.  Hollow  cement  blocks  make  a  very  good  wall,  but 
-a  better  one  is  made  by  constructing  a  board  wall  so  as  to 
provide  a  dead  air  space.  This  may  be  done  by  placing 
2x4's  upright,  putting  a  tier  of  tongued  and  grooved  sheet- 


298  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

ing  on  the  inside,  and  on  the  outside  a  tier  of  rough  boards 
overlaid  with  paper  and  then  sheeted  on  the  outside  of  this. 
This  leaves  a  four  inch  dead  air  space  which  is  an  excellent 
non-conductor  of  both  heat  and  cold. 

A  pig  pen  should  be  well  ventilated.  No  animals  can 
thrive  in  an  atmosphere  of  impure  air.  But  ventilation  must 
be  secured  without  creating  an  appreciable  draft  or  too 
great  an  inflow  of  cold  air.  Sufficient  fresh  air  may  be 
created  through  the  cracks  in  the  doors  and  windows,  and 
the  foul  air  may  find  an  escape  through  flues  leading  to 
openings  in  the  roof.  When  the  weather  is  very  severe 
the  opening  should  be  closed.  Another  means  of  admitting 
fresh  air  is  by  the  use  of  the  sub-earth  duct  which  consists 
of  one  or  two  rows  of  tile  laid  along  under  the  alleyway  and 
having  an  opening  both  on  the  outside  where  the  air  enters- 
and  on  the  inside  where  it  escapes  into  the  pens.  The  out- 
side end  should  be  screened  by  wire  netting  to  prevent  the- 
entrance  of  rats  and  other  little  animals.  Flues  may  be 
constructed  in  such  a  way  as  to  open  on  the  outside  at  the- 
bottom  of  the  wall  and  on  the  inside  at  the  roof,  and  through 
this  fresh  air  will  find  its  way  into  the  pens  and  be  dis- 
tributed. The  sub-earth  duct  plan  commends  itself  because 
in  the  winter  the  air  is  warmed  while  passing  in  as  the  earth 
is  warmer  than  the  outside,  and  in  the  summer  the  air 
entering  is  cooler  than  the  outside  air  and  thus  cools  off 
the  pen. 

While  securing  ventilation  you  must  not  overlook  the- 
matter  of  drafts,  for  these  are  very  harmful  to  pigs  that  are 
lying  down  sleeping,  and  especially  the  young  pigs.  Air 
sorts  of  troubles  are  brought  on  by  exposure  to  drafts. 

Pigs,  too,  should  have  warmth,  as  it  takes  less  food  to 
maintain  pigs  in  warm  quarters,  but  good  ventilation  should 
be  sought  first  as  pigs  will  do  much  better  in  colder  quarters 
with  good  fresh  air  in  abundance  than  they  will  in  warm  ones 
with  the  fresh  air  denied  them.  Provide  a  good,  clean  bed" 
of  straw  or  leaves  or  some  such  material,  dry  walls,  good 
feed,  fresh  air  and  sunlight,  and  healthy,  robust,  vigorous 
pigs  should  be  the  result,  other  things  being  equal. 

The  combination  breeding,  farrowing  and  feeding  pen 
which  consists  of  a  large  building  containing  a  feed  and 
boiler  room  and  alleyway  and  properly  fitted  pens,  is  one- 
which  is  very  suitable  in  many  sections,  especially  so  be- 


PENS  FOR  PIGS.  299 

cause  of  its  convenience.  However,  in  those  parts  where 
diseases  are  prevalent  the  small,  isolated  pens  are  much 
safer  and  hence  more  preferable.  In  the  larger  combina- 
tion house  you  have  all  your  pigs  together  and  if  the  dis- 
ease breaks  out  all  are  apt  to  be  affected,  while  in  the 
colony  system  with  small  isolated  pens,  one  or  two  pigs  may 
be  attacked  and  be  destroyed,  say,  with  cholera,  and  all 
the  rest  of  the  herd  might  be  left  unhurt.  This  plan  neces- 
sitates more  labor,  it  is  true,  to  care  for  the  herd,  but  it  is- 
attended  with  much  better  results,  especially  in  the  corn 
belt  where  swine  plague  and  cholera  destroy  such  large 
numbers.  The  small  pens  are  constructed  quite  cheaply 
and  may  be  built  on  scantling  runners  so  that  they  may  be 
easily  hauled  from  one  part  of  the  field  to  another. 

Open  sheds  are  sometimes  provided  for  swine  to  run  into. 
Where  such  are  used  they  should  always  open  to  the  south. 
The  north,  east  and  west  sides  should  be  tightly  boarded 
and  battened  so  as  to  protect  the  pigs  from  winds  and  driv- 
ing snow  and  rains. 

If  the  larger  combination  pen  is  adapted  to  your  con- 
ditions you  should  plan  it  according  to  instructions  already 
given  in  this  lecture,  and  in  previous  ones,  as  regards  cheap- 
ness, convenience  and  the  comfort  and  health  of  your  pigs. 

The  pen  should  be  placed  east  and  west  so  as  to  face 
the  south.  The  feed  room  should  be  in  one  end  and  should 
be  large  enough  to  accommodate  grain  bins  and  cooker  and 
fuel.  There  should  be  an  alleyway  of  at  least  five  feet  in 
width,  but  eight  feet  would  be  better.  Pens  should  be  eight 
by  eleven  feet  on  both  sides  of  the  alley.  It  adds  to  the 
convenience  if  you  can  have  small  swing  doors,  two  feet 
wide,  leading  from  the  alley  into  each  pen.  There  should 
also  be  a  two  and  a  half  foot  swing  door  in  the  partition 
separating  each  pen  so  that  the  pigs  may  be  moved  easily 
from  one  pen  to  another.  Leading  from  each  pen  to  an  out- 
side yard  there  should  be  a  door  two  and  a  half  feet  high 
by  two  feet  wide.  This  can  be  a  drop  door  which  can  be 
easily  raised  or  lowered  by  having  a  rope  reaching  from  the 
alleyway  over  a  pulley  in  the  ceiling  just  above  the  door 
and  then  attached  to  the  top  of  the  door. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  walls  may  be  made 
of  hollow  cement  blocks,  but  a  wooden  wall  as  previously 
described  is  more  desirable. 


300  LIVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

Cement  floors  are  preferred  for  several  reasons,  chief  of 
which  are  cleanliness,  coolness  in  summer,  durability,  and 
they  also  prevent  rats  from  working  underneath  and  finding 
harboring  places  from  which  they  make  raids  on  the  grain 
bins.  But  they  are  undesirable  in  that  they  are  cold  .in  winter 
and  often  cause  lameness  in  pigs  that  are  confined  in  them 
continually.  This  difficulty  can  be  overcome,  however,  by 
constructing  a  portable  wooden  floor  six  by  seven  feet  on 
which  the  hogs  may  make  their  beds.  A  four  inch  railing 
spiked  around  this  will  be  very  useful  in  keeping  the  bedding 
in  place.  In  this  way  the  cement  can  be  used  for  a  feeding 
floor  and  be  easily  cleaned,  and  will  at  the  same  time 
help  to  save  the  litter  which  is  a  valuable  fertilizer  instead 
of  allowing  it  to  run  beneath  the  pen  to  make  the  hog's 
environments  unsanitary. 

A  cement  trough  of  eight  inches  depth  next  the  alley 
five  inches  next  the  pen,  and  ten  inches  in  width,  in  place 
of  a  wooden  trough,  will  prove  a  valuable  investment  because 
of  its  durability  and  cleanliness.  The  alleyway,  too,  should 
be  made  of  cement  for  reasons  already  mentioned,  durability, 
cleanliness,  prevention  of  the  workings  of  rats,  etc. 

Convenience  at  feeding  time  is  obtained  by  means  of  a 
swinging  partition  next  to  the  alleyway  which  is  made  se- 
cure at  the  top  while  the  bottom  is  allowed  to  swing  over 
the  inside  of  the  trough  when  the  swill  is  being  poured  in 
from  the  alley.  The  door  is  held  there  by  a  long  rod  which 
slips  down  on  the  other  side  of  the  trough.  The  same  holds 
it  fast  when  in  proper  position  as  a  partition  between  the 
pen  and  alley. 

Any  one  or  more  of  these  pens  may  be  turned  into  a 
safe  farrowing  pen  by  the  use  of  a  simple  device.  Spike  to 
the  three  sides  of  the  wall  about  nine  inches  from  the  floor 
a  2x8  inch  scantling  and  this  will  prevent  the  mother  from 
lying  on  her  pigs.  When  she  lies  down  they  can  usually 
get  away  under  this  and  escape  unhurt.  The  south  and 
east  sides  of  such  a  pen  as  we  have  described  should  be 
provided  with  a  large  number  of  windows  for  the  admission 
of  sunlight.  If  the  roof  from  the  north  side  is  elevated 
three  or  four  feet  above  the  roof  from  the  south  side,  this 
vertical  space  can  be  filled  in  at  short  intervals  with  the 
windows  which  will  serve  a  double  purpose — that  of  ventila- 
tion and  the  admission  of  light,  and  sunshine  during  part  of 


PENS  FOB  PIGS.  301 

the  year,  to  the  pens  on  the  north  side.  There  should  be 
but  one  or  two  windows  on  the  north  side,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  house.  A  good  size  for  windows  is  two  and  a  half 
high  by  five  feet  long. 

A  very  suitable  height  would  be  eight  feet  for  the  south 
wall,  eleven  feet  for  the  north  wall,  sixteen  feet  to  the 
peak  of  the  north  wall. 

The  colony  plan  calls  for  smaller  and  numerous  houses 
that  may  be  scatttered  over  larger  areas.  Of  these  there  are 
different  kinds.  A  small  house,  eight  feet  square  at  the 
bottom  is  easily  made  by  sawing  16  foot  boards  in  two.  Lay 
out  a  foundation  with  3x8  scantlings,  8  feet  square.  Nail 
these  eight  foot  boards  at  the  bottom  and  bring  them  to- 
gether at  the  top  so  as  to  form  an  equilateral  triangle,  and 
nail  to  a  scantling  secured  there.  Board  up  both  ends,  leav- 
ing a  21/£x2  foot  opening  which  can  be  protected  by  hanging 
over  it  an  old  sack  or  a  drop  door  attached  with  leather 
hinges.  The  pigs  will  get  in  the  way  of  going  in  and  out 
and  opening  these  themselves.  The  cracks  should  be  well 
battened  and  the  opening  should  face  the  south.  This  house 
may  be  put  on  runners  and  easily  changed  from  one  part  of 
the  field  to  another.  It  is  very  convenient  for  the  sow  and 
litter.  In  order  to  increase  warmth  it  should  be  banked 
up  2y2  feet  with  horse  manure.  Another  house,  built  on  the 
shanty  plan  is  very  suitable  for  housing  brood  sows  in  winter. 
It  is  seven  feet  high  in  front,  four  feet  at  the  rear,  eight  feet 
wide,  and  sixteen  feet  long  with  a  flat  roof.  In  the  front 
there  should  be  a  window  and  at  the  corner  a  2^x5  foot  door, 
with  the  upper  two  feet  of  the  door  fastened  shut,  but  capable 
of  being  opened  when  the  attendant  wishes  to  enter.  This 
pen,  too,  should  be  well  banked  up  with  horse  manure  and 
should  be  comfortably  bedded. 

Corn  cribs  with  a  two  thousand  bushel  capacity  or  of 
such  capacity  as  will  suit  the  condition  of  the  feeder,  should 
be  placed  conveniently  near.  Sometimes  these  are  built  in 
connection  with  the  hog  pen,  where  pens  are  placed  only  on 
one  side  of  the  alley. 

Every  hog  pen  should  have  an  outside  yard  in  connection 
with  the  pen,  in  which  the  pigs  may  take  exercise.  These 
mav  be  large  or  small,  according  to  the  conditions  that  pre- 
vail. All  hogs  that  must  be  confined  in  summer  should  have 
long,  narrow  runways,  between  which  may  be  sown  forage 


302  I<IVE  STOCK  MANAGEMENT. 

crops  of  rape,  sweet  corn,  peas  and  oats,  oats  and  barley, 
soy  beans,  or  some  one  or  more  of  the  forage  crops  men- 
tioned in  a  previous  lecture. 

Hogs  should  not  be  allowed  access  to  a  stream  coming 
from  sources  where  contamination  from  infectious  diseases 
may  have  taken  place.  Supply  pure  water  to  them  at  all 
times  in  their  pens  and  runways.  Scratching  posts  with 
kerosone  soaked  linen  are  not  out  of  place  in  a  hog  house. 
When  hogs  are  removed  from  pens  the  whole  apartments 
should  be  cleaned  and  floor,  walls  and  ceiling  should  be 
thoroughly  disinfected  with  Zenoleum,  Chloro-Naphtholeum 
or  some  other  disinfectant  of  equal  merit. 

In  summarizing,  provide  economical,  convenient,  comfort- 
able, clean,  dry,  warm,  light,  well  ventilated,  free  from  draft 
quarters  for  your  hogs.  Special  pains  taken  with  little  pigs 
in  regard  to  comfort  and  warmth,  will  be  amply  repaid. 


MAR  30  1104 


'  WV  DEL.  TO  CAT.  01V 
MAR     3!    1904 


APR     6    1904 


Series 


PART  1 


KEHHEDY. 


Correspondence 

Agricultural 

College 

Vot/jr  Cfty.Iotva — 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  SERIES. 

PART  I.        NO.  VI. 


LECTURES 


Principles  of  Breeding 


AND 


Poultry  Management. 


WILLARD  J.  KENNEDY,  B.  S.  A. 


Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 
and  Vice  Director  of  Experiment 
Station.  Iowa  State  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 


Correspondence  Agricultural  College, 
SIOUX  CITY,  IOWA. 


All  Rights  Reserved. 


LIBRARY  Of  CON6RESS 

AUG    5    1904 

Otpyright  Entry 


CLASS          XXt.  Na 
COPY  A 


Copyright,  1904, 

by 
RURAL  TEXT  BOOK  COMPANY, 

Assignee. 


1904. 
Rural  Text  Book  Company 

Press. 


CONTENTS. 


Part  1.     No.  VI. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    BREEDING    AND    POULTRY    MANAGE- 

MENT. 


LECTURES. 

Pages. 

LXXVII.     Breeding— A  Science  and  an  Art 303-305 

LXXVIII.     The  Influence  of  Heredity  and  Prepotency  306-309 
LXXIX.     Atavism     and     Its     Influence     in     Animal 

Breeding    310-311 

LXXX.     Influence   of   Law   of   Correlation 312-314 

LXXXI.     Influence  of  the  Law  of  Variation 315-317 

LXXXII.     Influence    and   Causes   of   Fecundity 318-320 

LXXXIII.     Influence  of  In-Breeding  and  Line  Breed- 
ing       321-323 

LXXXIV.     Influences  of  Cross-Breeding  and  Grading  324-326 

LXXXV.     Natural    Breeding    327-328 

LXXXVI.     The    Formation   of   New    Breeds 329-330 

LXXXVII.     The  Poultry  Industry  and  Its  Relation  to 

the    Farm    331-332 

LXXXVIII.     Buildings,    Sheds   and  Yards    Suitable   for 

Poultry    333-336 

LXXXIX.     Marketable    Poultry    Products— Eggs    and 

Meat    337-339 

XC.     Breeds  of  Poultry 340-341 

XCI.     Selection,      Care      and      Management      of 

Breeding  Stock   342-344 

XCII.     Judging  Poultry  from  a  Utility  Standpoint  345-346 

XCIII.     Improving  the   Flock 347-349 

XCIV.     Management    and    Feeding   for    Egg    Pro- 
duction        350-352 

XCV.     Feeding  Stuffs   Suitable  for  Poultry 353-355 

XCVI.     Rearing  Chicks — Feed,  Care  and  Manage- 
ment        356-358 

XCVII.     Fattening,   Killing  and  Preparing  Poultry 

for   Market    .   359-361 


PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING 


LECTURE   LXXVII. 


BREEDING— A    SCIENCE    AND    AN    ART. 

The  subject  of  animal  breeding  presents  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and,  at  the  same  time,  most  difficult  fields  of 
investigation  open  to  the  student  of  animal  husbandry.  We 
have  records  of  systematized  efforts  along  these  lines  ever 
since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  Robert  Bake- 
well  sought  to  develop  a  mutton  breed  of  sheep,  a  beef  bread 
of  cattle,  and  a  type  of  heavy  draft  horse  which  would  be 
superior  to  those  existing  at  that  time. 

Notwithstanding  this  fact  we  are  still  pondering  along  in 
the  dark  so  far  as  many  of  the  principles  are  concerned. 
Animal  breeding  differs  from  animal  feeding  in  that  it  takes 
so  much  longer  to  get  definite  and  reliable  results.  Few  men 
have  patience  and  perseverence  enough  to  follow  any  line 
of  investigation  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  get  reliable  and 
helpful  information.  Furthermore,  man's  life  is  too  short 
in  many  instances  to  do  much  unless  he  should  start  at  a 
very  early  age  and  continue  the  same  line  during  his  entire 
lifetime.  This  is  due  to  the  large  number  of  force3  which 
come  into  operation.  There  are  certain  laws  which  seem  to 
be  fairly  well  understood,  and  in  this  connection  we  will  con- 
fine our  attention  to  them. 

The  object  in  breeding  animals  should  be  to  produce  cer- 
tain well  defined  types  which  are  suited  to  some  special  pur- 
pose or  demand.  We  should  use  every  particle  of  knowledge 
available  which  will  in  any  way  aid  us  in  securing  this  end. 

This  makes  the  systematic  breeding  of  animals  a  science. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  sciences.  The  term 
science  simply  means  knowledge  systematized.  T.he  breeder 
of  live  stock,  who  in  his  breeding  work  discovers  any  point 


304  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

or  points  which  will  be  helpful  to  his  fellow  breeders,  can 
well  be  termed  a  scientist. 

The  animal  breeder  who  applies  the  principles  of  breeding 
as  worked  out  by  the  men  from  Bakewell  down  to  the  present 
day  is  an  artist  in  the  fullest  meaning  of  the  word.  Art  is 
simply  the  application  of  science  to  some  desired  end.  The 
breeder  of  live  stock  is  a  moulder  of  animal  form.  His  work 
is  the  greatest  of  that  of  all  artists.  He  does  not  deal  with 
dead  forms  of  material.  He  is  concerned  in  the  moulding 
and  forming  of  living  organisms.  If  he  can  by  years  of  sys- 
tematic study  in  the  mating  and  care  of  animals  produce  a 
horse  with  all  the  parts  so  developed  and  blended  as  to 
possess  the  style  and  grandeur  which  we  sometimes  see  in 
the  American  gaited  saddle  horse,  he  has  certainly  accom- 
plished a  high  art. 

One  of  the  most  commonly  accepted  laws  in  animal  breed- 
ing is  the  law  that  like  produces  like.  If  this  were  not  true 
in  a  general  way,  we  would  not  have  any  guide  at  all  in  our 
work.  Still,  this  law  does  not  always  hold  true;  in  fact,  it 
is  doubtful  if  it  ever  holds  true  in  every  detail.  Animals, 
like  people,  may  possess  many  characteristics  or  points  of 
similarity,  yet  there  is  always  or  nearly  always  some  point  of 
difference.  It  may  be  in  color;  it  may  be  in  form;  it  may 
be  in  disposition,  or  one  or  several  of  a  great  number  of 
other  things,  all  of  which  go  to  make  up  the  animal. 

If  the  law  that  like  produces  like  always  held  true  in  every 
detail  the  breeding  of  live  stock  would  be  a  very  simple  and 
uninteresting  vocation.  If  such  were  the  case,  we  would  not 
have  our  many  different  breeds  and  types  of  live  stock.  In 
cattle,  for  instance,  they  would  all  be  the  same  in  color,  form, 
size,  purpose,  and  so  on.  It  is  that  law,  which  is  working 
all  the  time,  sometimes  in  a  marked  way  and  more  often 
in  an  apparently  unnoticeable  manner,  that  like  does  not 
produce  like  in  every  detail  which  makes  the  breeding  of 
animals  difficult,  interesting  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
sciences.  It  is  to  this  law  that  we  owe  our  marked  improve- 
ment in  the  various  classes  of  stock.  It  was  by  taking  ad- 
vantage of  this  law  that  Bakewell,  Booth,  Cruickshank  and 
the  many  other  noted  breeders  were  able  to  accomplish  their 
marvelous  work  in  the  field  of  animal  breeding.  If  in  the 
breeding  of  animals  we  are  ever  to  accomplish  anything 
permanent  and  useful,  it  will  be  done  by  having  fixed  stand- 
ards or  ideals  of  what  is  best,  then  start  out  and  never  let 


AIM  OF  THE  BREEDER.  305 

up  until  we  have  reached  our  mark.  This  at  once  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  a  keen  eye  and  a  good  judge  of  stock. 

It  requires  a  most  critical  observer  to  make  a  good  breeder. 
He  must  be  a  broad-minded  man,  else  he  will  likely  get  side- 
tracked by  paying  too  much  attention  to  minor  points  and 
not  enough  to  the  real  purpose.  It  is  said  of  Bakewell  that 
he  always  aimed  to  make  the  beauty  in  the  form  and  pro- 
portion of  his  animals  contribute  to  the  development  of  the 
useful  characters.  He  had  a  well  trained  eye  which  enabled 
him  to  detect  the  slightest  deviation  of  form  or  any  other 
points  desirable  or  undesirable.  Whenever  the  law  that  like 
does  not  always  produce  like  appeared  in  his  breeding  opera- 
tions he  always  studied  the  cause,  and  if  possible  applied  it 
at  some  other  time  to  aid  him  in  his  work. 

In  breeding  all  classes  of  live  stock  we  must  ever  keep 
in  mind  that  success  will  be  valued  by  the  actual  value  of  the 
products  and  the  profits  to  be  derived  from  them.  The  animal 
is  simply  a  machine  whose  duty  or  work  is  to  convert  raw 
materials  into  finished  products.  If  we  can,  by  any  means 
or  system  of  breeding,  reduce  the  amount  of  running  ex- 
penses of  this  machine  we  have  accomplished  something  of 
value  in  animal  breeding.  If  we  can,  by  any  method  of  breed- 
ing, so  perfect  this  machine  that  it  will  turn  out  a  more  val- 
uable produce,  we  have  accomplished  much.  For  illustra- 
tion: If  we  can  produce  a  type  of  animal  that  can  be  main- 
tained on  less  than  the  average  ration,  it  will  be  more  profit- 
able, or  if  we  can  produce  a  meat  animal  with  a  larger 
amount  of  high  priced  cuts  than  the  average  animal,  we  are 
selling  our  raw  material  in  a  better  market.  There  is  no 
subject  of  more  vital  concern  to  the  farmer  than  improve- 
ment in  his  methods  of  breeding  animals.  We  cannot  study 
this  matter  too  carefully.  We  must  always  have  utility  for 
our  watchword. 


LECTURE  LXXVIII. 


THE   INFLUENCE  OF  HEREDITY  AND  PREPOTENCY. 

One  of  the  most  commonly  accepted  laws  in  animal  breed- 
ing is  that  "like  produces  like."  This  simply  means  the  in- 
heritance by  the  offspring  of  the  characteristics  of  the  parents 
at  the  time  of  procreation.  Although  there  are  many  excep- 
tions to  this  law,  an  examination  of  the  facts  will  reveal  that 
this  law  is  always  in  operation,  also  that  it  extends  to  every 
feature  of  the  organism.  While  in  some  instances  it  may 
not  show  up  very  strongly,  this  is  simply  due  to  the  fact  that 
some  other  law  which  is  more  predominant  for  the  time  be- 
ing has  obscured  it. 

The  resemblance  of  the  offspring  to  the  parent  is  very 
marked  in  most  cases.  This  is  simply  the  influence  of  the 
law  of  heredity.  It  is  very  helpful  and  valuable  in  the  breed- 
ing of  our  best  animals.  By  means  of  this  apparently  simple 
law  we  are  able  to  breed  definite  types  for  definite  purposes. 
It  is  the  outward  guide.  -Its  influence  in  animal  breeding  is 
not  confined  solely  to  the  external  conformation,  color  mark- 
ings, and  so  on.  It  shows  its  influence  on  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, internal  organs  and,  in  fact,  in  every  detail  of  the  animal 
organism.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  sometimes  a  very  dan- 
gerous law.  Through  it,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  many 
of  the  very  worst  kinds  of  diseases  are  transmitted. 

In  discussing  this  law  it  might  be  well  to  illustrate  the  in- 
fluence of  the  same  by  use  of  a  few  of  the  most  common 
and  marked  examples.  The  uniformity  found  in  the  different 
breeds  of  our  domestic  animals  is  a  very  good  example.  In 
almost  every  breed  there  are  favorite  families  or  strains 
which  are  noted  and  valued  because  through  the  law  of 
heredity  these  characteristics  can  be  readily  transmitted  to 
the  offspring. 

The  Down  sheep,  for  instance,  will  invariably  transmit  their 
dark  face  and  leg  color  markings  as  well  as  their  mutton 
form  to  their  progeny. 

The  ability  of  the  cow  to  convert  large  quantities  of  feed 


INFLUENCE  OF  HEREDITY.  307 

into  milk  is  hereditary  in  a  large  measure  and  is  usually 
transmitted  to  the  offspring. 

The  peculiar  propensities  of  some  kinds  of  animals  to  lay 
on  flesh  in  certain  parts  of  the  body  is  another  illustration, 
and  one  which  is  of  great  practical  value  to  stockmen.  Fe- 
cundity, also  another  point  which  is  of  vital  interest  to  the 
stockman,  is  in  a  large  measure  hereditary.  In  the  case  of 
swine  certain  families  have  larger  litters  than  others;  the 
same  is  true  in  sheep  and  other  classes  of  animals. 

Certain  peculiar  color  markings  have  also  been  known  to 
be  hereditary.  There  are  numerous  other  illustrations  which 
might  be  cited  in  this  connection  as  belonging  to  what  we  call 
normal  characteristics,  or  those  which  are  not  unusual. 

Another  class  of  characteristics  which  are  hereditary  are 
those  which  belong  to  the  acquired  or  abnormal  class.  In 
the  acquired  class  may  be  placed  those  characteristics  which 
have  been  developed  by  the  conditions  in  which  they  are 
placed  or  the  peculiar  training  they  have  received  at  the 
hands  of  man. 

A  few  illustrations  of  this  form  will  suffice  to  show  the 
influence  of  this  law.  The  tendency  of  the  dairy  cow  to  give 
a  large  flow  of  milk,  which  is  due  in  no  small  measure  to  the 
influence  of  man,  is  hereditary.  In  the  case  of  dogs  we  find 
certain  well  defined  traits  which  are  transmitted  to  the  young. 
Young  setters,  pointers  and  retrievers,  that  have  never  been 
in  the  field,  will  often  work  with  as  much  steadiness  as  a 
dog  of  long  experience.  This  is  an  excellent  illustration  of 
heredity.  These  are  but  a  few  of  many  examples  which  might 
be  cited. 

Another  class  of  characteristics  which  are  oftentimes  in- 
herited are  those  of  a  rather  unusual  nature  called  abnormal. 
They  represent  something  unusual  in  the  way  of  a  freak. 
In  certain  human  families  the  presence  of  an  extra  toe  or 
finger  in  one  of  the  parents  has  oftentimes  been  transmitted 
to  the  children.  In  some  instances  of  this  kind  every  one  of 
some  half  a  dozen  children  born  to  such  parents  have  had 
six  fingers  or  toes,  while  in  other  instances  one  or  two  mem- 
bers of  the  family  would  be  thus  affected  and  the  remainder 
be  normal.  In  some  instances  the  normal  members  of  the 
family  gave  birth  to  children  with  six  fingers  or  toes.  Take 
the  Dorking  breed  of  fowls  which  has  the  fifth  toe  as  one 
of  its  characteristics  at  the  present  time,  in  early  days  had 


303  PRINCIPLES  OP  BREEDING. 

only  four  toes.  The  fifth  toe  was  inherited  from  a  five-toed 
variety  introduced  into  Britain  by  the  Romans. 

There  are  hundreds  of  illustrations  along  this  line  which 
might  be  cited.  Scientists  no  longer  doubt  the  possibility 
of  diseases  being  inherited.  This  is  a  point  of  vital  import- 
ance to  the  breeder  of  live  stock.  When  hereditary  disease 
makes  its  appearance  at  the  time  of  birth  it  is  called  con- 
genital. Where  considerable  time  elapses  before  it  appears 
it  is  designated  as  a  case  of  predisposition  or  a  tendency  to 
disease.  There  are  certain  diseases  which  are  transmitted 
with  greater  uniformity  than  others,  yet  a  predisposition  to 
almost  every  known  form  of  disease  is  almost  likely  to  become 
hereditary.  In  this  connection  we  will  not  attempt  to  de- 
scribe or  enumerate  all  the  diseases  which  are  hereditary,  but 
to  notice  only  those  which  illustrate  the  laws  of  hereditary 
transmission  or  that  are  of  peculiar  importance  to  the 
breeders. 

Scrofula  and  its  allies  cover  a  large  and  very  important 
class  of  troubles  which  are  more  or  less  hereditary.  In  this 
connection  much  of  the  trouble  is  due  to  constitutional  defect 
as  indicated  by  a  narrow,  slack  chest,  indicating  lack  of  vigor 
and  stamina.  This  is  especially  true  in  tuberculosis,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  common  and  destructive  troubles  to  cattle. 

Bone  spavin,  curbs,  ring  bone,  navicular  disease  and  other 
similar  troubles  of  the  bones  and  joints  are  in  most  instances 
of  a  hereditary  nature.  These  troubles  are  very  seldom 
present  at  birth.  They  usually  make  their  appearance  before 
the  animal  is  six  years  old,  or  as  soon  as  the  parts  in  question 
are  subjected  to  a  strain  of  rather  severe  nature,  such  as 
any  horse  is  likely  to  receive  at  hard  work. 

Barrenness  in  animals  belongs  to  this  class  and  is  very 
likely  to  be  inherited.  These  illustrations  are  but  a  few  of 
the  large  number  which  might  be  cited,  still  they  show  the 
varied  influences  of  this  law  in  its  relation  to  animal  breeding. 

By  the  law  of  prepotency  is  meant  the  superior  influence 
which  one  particular  breed  of  animals  has  over  another 
breed,  or  the  one  particular  parent  has  over  another  parent 
in  transmitting  its  characteristics  to  the  offspring.  This  is  an 
important  law  in  the  improvement  of  our  animals.  It  rarely 
happens  that  we  find  an  equal  mingling  in  the  offspring  of 
the  natures  of  both  parents.  For  some  reason  or  other  the 
offspring  generally  possesses  more  of  the  characteristics  of 
one  parent  than  of  the  other.  In  many  respects  this  is  a 


PREPOTENCY.  309 

great  advantage  to  the  breeder.  By  securing  a  prepotent  sire 
he  can  oftentimes  remedy  a  common  defect  in  his  whole  fe- 
male herd. 

Prepotency  is  supposed  to  be  governed  by  the  vigor  of 
the  animal,  the  age  of  the  animal,  and  the  length  of  time 
during  which  its  ancestors  have  been  bred  along  a  special 
and  distinct  line.  Certain  breeds  of  cattle  like  the  Galloway 
are  supposed  to  be  more  prepotent  than  some  of  the  newer 
breeds,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Galloway  is  one  of  our  very 
oldest  breeds.  Certain  families  are  more  prepotent  than 
others,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  been  bred  along  a 
distinct  line  for  many  generations. 

Prepotency  is  usually  treated  as  breed  prepotency  and  as 
individual  prepotency.  The  former  is  general  and  the  latter 
special  in  its  influence.  The  same  law  seems  to  act  in  the 
same  way  in  both  cases.  The  division  has  a  special  and  real 
value  to  the  stock  breeder.  Breed  prepotency  is  seen  when 
animals  of  any  of  the  old  and  well  established  breeds,  such 
as  Shorthorns,  Galloway,  Jersey,  Merino  and  many  others, 
are  used  on  other  breeds,  or  on  the  ordinary  stock.  The  off- 
spring will  nearly  always  bear  a  very  marked  resemblance  to 
the  one  of  the  above  mentioned  breeds  used. 

Individual  prepotency  is  seen  in  many  of  the  families  of 
the  different  breeds  of  stock.  In  the  trotting  horse  we  find 
certain  sires  which  sired  more  noted  animals  than  others, 
due  to  their  superior  prepotency.  In  Shorthorn  cattle  certain 
bulls  have  sired  large  numbers  of  prize  winners,  and  so  on  in 
all  the  breeds.  This  peculiar  power  which  one  parent  possesses 
in  a  greater  degree  than  the  other  in  determining  the  shape, 
color,  temperament  and  so  on  of  the  offspring  is  known  as 
prepotency.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  this  law  is  very  help- 
ful to  the  breeder,  as  nothing  but  prepotent  sires  should  be 
used  in  the  breeding  herd. 


LECTURE  LXXIX. 


ATAVISM    AND    ITS   INFLUENCE    IN    ANIMAL   BREEDING. 

The  law  of  atavism  simply  means  a  "throwing  back"  or 
reverting  to  some  form,  color  or  other  characteristic  which 
formerly  existed  but  does  not  at  the  present  time. 

In  the  breeding  of  animals  many  problems  rather  complex 
in  nature  present  themselves.  If  ths  first  law  that  "like  pro- 
duces like"  always  held  good,  there  would  not  be  any  differ- 
entiation in  animals.  They  would  all  be  the  same  in  every 
detail.  Such  is  not  the  case.  Some  animals  resemble  one 
parent,  some  the  other  parent;  some  possess  in  a  certain 
measure  the  characters  of  both  parents.  In  some  instances 
the  young  in  one  or  more  respects  does  not  resemble  either 
parent,  but  resembles  some  remote  ancestor  perhaps  four  or 
five  generations  back.  This  "breeding  back"  or  "throwing 
back"  is  called  atavism.  In  this  connection  Mr.  Darwin  cites 
the  following  .  interesting  case:  "A  pointer  bitch  produced 
seven  puppies.  Four  were  marked  with  blue  and  white,  which 
is  so  unusual  a  color  in  pointers  that  she  was  supposed  to 
have  been  bred  to  a  greyhound  instead  of  a  pointer;  thus  the 
whole  litter  was  condemned.  A  gamekeeper,  however,  saved 
one  as  a  curiosity.  Two  years  afterwards  a  friend  of  the 
owner  saw  the  dog  and  declared  that  he  was  the  image  of 
his  old  pointer  bitch  Sappho,  the  only  blue  and  white  pointer 
of  pure  descent  which  he  had  ever  seen.  Upon  close  inquiry 
they  found  that  the  young  dog  was  a  great-great-grandson 
of  Sappho." 

In  the  case  of  poultry  we  have  many  illustrations  of  this 
law.  In  one  instance  a  poultry  fancier  crossed  his  fowls 
with  Malays.  He  tried  very  hard  to  eliminate  the  Malay 
characters,  but  in  vain,  as  they  would  appear  from  time  to 
time  even  forty  years  afterwards. 

Miles  refers  to  an  interesting  case  in  cattle  breeding  that 
occurred  in  the  Kennebec  Valley.  At  one  time  there  were 
a  few  polled  cattle  in  that  valley,  but  they  finally  became 
extinct.  For  thirty-five  years  after  the  last  of  these  polled 
cattle  was  killed  the  cattle  on  a  particular  farm  all  had  horns, 
but  at  the  end  of  that  time  a  polled  animal  made  its  ap- 


ATAVISM.  311 

pearance  in  his  herd  having  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
original  breed. 

It  is  also  stated  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Sidney  that  in  a 
litter  of  six  pigs  two  young  ones  appeared  with  the  marks 
of  a  Berkshire  which  had  been  used  twenty-eight  years  before. 

The  occasional  appearance  of  horns  or  "scurs"  in  the  polled 
breeds  of  cattle,  which  have  been  pred  pure  for  many  years, 
furnishes  another  example  of  this  law. 

In  early  years  tan  color  spots  were  common  on  the  face 
and  legs  of  the  Spanish  Merino.  These  disappeared  entirely 
for  many  years,  but  at  the  present  time  many  flocks  are  to 
be  found  with  these  markings,  no  doubt  the  result  of  atavism. 

The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  dark  noses  of  Shorthorn 
cattle  and  the  tendency  for  the  ears  of  the  Poland  China  and 
other  drooping-eared  breeds  to  become  erect.  These  are 
illustrations  of  atavism. 

We  could  go  on  and  cite  hundreds  of  cases  to  illustrate 
this  law,  but  it  is  not  necessary.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that 
such  a  law  is  constantly  in  operation  in  animal  breeding. 
It  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  breeder  to  have  an  under- 
standing of  this  law.  It  simply  makes  the  breeding  of  ani- 
mals a  more  complicated  and  uncertain  business.  How  are 
we  to  know  what  to  expect  when  we  mate  two  animals?  Is 
it  possible  to  overcome  these  objectionable  features  which 
appear  from  time  to  time?  There  seems  to  be  but  one  method 
of  combating  this  trouble,  and  that  is  by  keeping  a  very 
careful  record  of  the  ancestry  of  the  animals.  In  fact,  the 
name  and  breeding  alone  is  not  sufficient.  We  should  have 
somewhere  a  complete  description  and  history  of  each  ani- 
mal. If  we  had  this  back  for  a  long  period  of  years  we  might 
then  be  able  in  a  greater  degree  to  prophesy  what  the  progeny 
should  be. 

This  emphasizes  the  value  of  the  pedigree.  It  furnishes  a 
means  of  tracing  the  history  of  ancestors,  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  characters  that  are  liable  to  be  trans- 
mitted by  atavic  descent.  That  is  the  only  means  available 
at  present  in  most  herds.  In  some,  however,  where  a  com- 
plete register  is  kept,  we  are  able  to  get  much  valuable  in- 
formation concerning  each  animal.  It  would  be  of  great 
value  to  our  stockmen  if  each  and  every  breeder  kept  an 
individual  record  of  his  animals.  The  breeding  of  animals 
is  a  complicated  subject,  thus  every  possible  method  should 
be  practiced  which  would  simplify  this  problem. 


LECTURE   LXXX. 


INFLUENCE   OF   LAW   OF  CORRELATION. 

By  the  law  of  heredity  and  other  influences  we  have  dis- 
covered that  when  two  animals  of  extreme  diversity  of  type 
are  mated  the  offspring  does  not,  as  a  general  rule,  have  the 
peculiar  or  extreme  characters  of  either  parent  developed 
as  fully  as  either  parent.  They  seem,  in  a  sense,  to  blend 
together  and  form  a  happy  medium.  This  same  thing  is  illus- 
trated in  photography.  By  the  continuous  focusing  of  a 
camera  on  a  number  of  different  animals,  using  the  same 
plate  all  the  time,  and  then  developing  the  same,  we  will 
discover  that  if  there  were  certain  characteristics  in  common 
in  all  of  the  animals  these  will  be  very  marked  in  the  photo. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  every  other  animal  is  of  a  different 
type  to  what  the  preceding  one  was  we  will  have  nothing 
but  a  blur. 

In  the  same  connection  where  animals  which  have  some 
points  in  common  and  in  other  respects  are  widely  different 
are  mated  the  offspring  will  show  prominence  of  those  char- 
acters which  are  in  common  and  the  suppression  of  those 
which  are  different  in  the  parents. 

In  the  arrangement  of  these  dominant  characters  in  the 
organization  there  seems  to  be  a  principle  of  development  and 
suppression,  which  is  designated  by  naturalists  as  the  law 
of  correlation.  The  law  may  be  denned  in  a  simple  term 
as  follows:  Any  peculiarity  in  the  development  of  one  organ 
or  set  of  organs  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
modification  or  suppression  of  organs  belonging  to  some 
other  part  of  the  body. 

This  law  seems  to  be  in  keeping  with  nature,  that  is,  that 
each  and  every  part  should  be  properly  developed.  If  by 
artificial  means,  or  by  selection,  we  seek  to  develop  one  par- 
ticular part,  that  in  time  the  same  will  be  checked  as  other 
necessary  parts  will  not  be  developed  in  a  sufficient  degree 
to  sustain  life. 

In  blind  people  where  the  sense  of  sight  is  lacking  some 


LAW  OF  CORRELATION.  313 

of  the  other  senses  are  generally  unusually  developed.  The 
sense  of  touch,  for  instance,  usually  attains  a  delicacy  that 
is  surprising  when  compared  with  that  of  the  average  person. 
There  are  some  instances  of  blind  people  who  could  tell  colors 
and  shades  of  colors  by  the  touch. 

People  who  are  affected  with  color  blindness  seldom,  if 
ever,  have  an  ear  for  music.  In  some  blind  people  the  sense 
of  smell  is  so  highly  developed  that  it  is  used  in  distinguish- 
ing persons.  Some  blind  people  are  enabled  to  perceive  the 
entrance  of  a  stranger  in  a  room  by  the  sense  of  smell.  Cats 
which  are  white  in  color  and  have  blue  eyes  are  usually 
blind. 

We  could  go  on  and  enumerate  a  large  number  of  examples 
to  illustrate  the  basis  of  this  law  and  its  influences.  It  cer- 
tainly should  be  of  interest  to  stockmen.  An  understanding 
of  it  may  be  helpful  in  accounting  for  some  of  the  many 
disappointments  in  animal  breeding.  In  this  day  and  age, 
we  hear  much  about  the  desirability  of  having  an  all 
purpose,  general  purpose,  or  dual  purpose  animal.  By 
such  an  animal  in  the  horse  world  we  would  mean  one  which 
combined  the  speed  of  the  trotting  horse,  the  strength  of  the 
draft  horse,  and  the  docility  of  the  coach  horse  all  in  one 
animal.  That  such  an  animal  would  be  desirable  cannot  be 
doubted.  It  would  be  a  most  useful  animal  on  any  premises. 
Can  such  an  animal  be  produced  with  any  degree  of  certainty 
is  another  question. 

Practical  experience  would  indicate  that  such  a  thing  is 
not  possible.  In  some  instances  we  may  find  animals  which 
in  a  measure  have  the  requisites  of  an  all  purpose  animal. 
They  will  not  stand  the  crucial  test  of  comparison  with  the 
best  of  any  special  class.  The  1,300-pound  horse  has  too  much 
weight  to  measure  up  with  the  lighter  bodied,  more  angular, 
fleet  footed  thoroughbred  on  the  race  course.  The  same  thing 
is  true  when  compared  with  the  trotting  bred  horse.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  cannot  compare  with  the  heavy  draft  horse 
weighing  a  ton  or  more,  when  it  comes  to  heavy  pull. 

It  may  have  the  energy,  the  pluck  and  the  willingness  to 
do  its  best,  but  it  has  not  the  weight,  and  that  is  what  counts. 
When  the  steam  engine  was  first  invented  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  have  cog  wheels  and  a  track  to  correspond  to 
insure  its  usefulness  in  pulling  a  load.  This  idea  failed  and 
the  engine  would  not  work.  A  light  horse  oftentimes  fails  to 
pull  a  heavy  load  up  a  hill,  but  when  part  of  the  load  is  put  on 


314  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

the  back  of  the  animal,  thus  giving  it  extra  weight,  the  task 
will  be  accomplished  without  any  trouble.  This  illustrates  the 
impossibility  of  producing  a  horse  suited  to  all  kinds  of  labor. 
If  proficient  in  one,  he  is  lacking  in  the  other. 

The  general  purpose  cow,  or  the  dual  purpose  cow,  as  she 
is  commonly  called,  belongs  to  the  same  class.  There  was  a 
time  when  all  of  our  cattle  were  the  same.  The  cow  gave 
milk  enough  to  feed  the  young.  Man,  however,  by  selection 
and  feeding  has  developed  two  distinct  types,  one  the  high- 
class  beef  animal  and  the  other  the  high-class  dairy  animal. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  breed  either  one  of  these  types,  when 
but  the  one  quality  is  wanted.  It  is  a  most  difficult  matter 
to  breed  an  animal  which  combines  these  qualities  in  a  fair 
degree,  to  say  nothing  of  getting  an  animal  equal  to  the  ideal 
beef  animal  from  a  meat  standpoint  and  possessing  the  milk- 
ing propensities  of  the  Jersey  or  Holstein.  This  is  impossible. 
It  is  possible,  however,  to  breed  an  animal  which  will  have  a 
fair  beef  form  and  at  the  same  time  possess  medium  milking 
qualities. 

This  is  really  the  dual  purpose  cow  and  is  much  nearer  to 
the  type  of  cow  which  formerly  existed  than  either  the  dairy 
or  beef  types,  both  of  which  are  in  a  large  measure  artificial. 
This  same  principle  holds  true  in  the  breeding  of  all  classes 
of  animals.  When  we  start  out  to  secure  an  unusual  develop- 
ment of  one  part  of  the  body,  the  same  can  only  be  secured 
at  the  sacrifice  of  some  other  part.  This  is  the  law  of  cor- 
relation of  parts,  which  simply  means  a  regular  and  uniform 
development  of  all  parts  and  organs  of  the  animal. 


LECTURE  LXXXI. 


INFLUENCE    OF   THE    LAW    OF    VARIATION. 

The  breeder  of  live  stock  notices  from  time  to  time 
changes  in  his  animals;  the  progeny  do  not  always  resemble 
the  parents  in  every  particular.  This  difference  in  some  in- 
stances is  very  slight  and  confined  to  just  a  few  points.  In 
other  instances  these  changes  are  very  marked;  so  marked 
as  to  present  an  animal  very  different  from  either  of  the 
parents.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  ever  was  an  instance  in 
animal  breeding  in  which  the  offspring  did  not  in  some  way, 
perhaps  very  little,  differ  from  the  parents.  This  being  the 
case,  we  can  see  that  there  is  some  law  at  work  all  the 
time,  which  produces  results  different  from  the  first  law,  that 
of  heredity,  which  is  that  like  produces  like. 

This  new  law  is  called  the  law  of  variation,  and  may  be 
defined  as  the  law  that  like  does  not  always  produce  like. 
In  a  sense  it  is  antagonistic  to  the  law  that  like  produces 
like.  Still  they  both  seem  to  operate  in  animal  breeding  in 
a  useful  manner.  The  first  law  might  be  more  properly  de- 
fined by  saying  that  like  produces  like  in  a  general  way. 
This  would  allow  of  some  minor  points  of  difference  which 
are  always  present.  It  may  be  a  slight  difference  of  form, 
in  any  one  of  its  numerous  details.  It  may  be  a  difference  in 
temperament,  in  color,  in  function  or  in  any  one  of  a  great 
many  other  points  which  might  be  mentioned.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  important  and  useful  laws  in  animal  breeding. 
Without  it,  it  would  be  impossible  for  us  in  any  way  to  im- 
prove our  animals.  It  may  act  in  the  way  of  improvement 
or  in  the  way  of  deterioration  or  retrogression.  It  is  to  this 
law  that  we  owe  the  presence  of  so  many  different  breeds 
of  live  stock.  It  is  through  the  influence  of  this  law  that 
we  are  able  to  breed  animals  for  special,  definite  purposes, 
such  as  the  ideal  beef  steer  and  the  highly  developed  dairy 
cow.  They  both  represent  variations  from  the  original  type. 
It  is  through  the  influence  and  presence  of  this  law  that  our 
various  breeds  and  types  of  animals  retrogrades  so  rapidly 


316  PRINCIPLES  OP  BREEDING. 

when  the  conditions  for  retrogression  are  present.  Thus,  we 
can  easily  understand  the  necessity  for  the  stockman  to 
have  a  full  understanding  of  this  law  in  its  action  and  the 
causes  which  render  it  most  influential. 

In  this  connection  we  will  discuss  in  a  very  brief  manner 
some  of  the  causes  of  variation  and  the  influences  of  the 
same  in  animal  breeding.  The  causes  of  variation  in  animals 
are  numerous,  but  in  this  connection  we  will  mention  a  few 
of  the  most  striking  examples,  such  as  changed  conditions  of 
life  due  to  climatic  influences,  food,  general  care,  selection 
and  so  on.  Thus  we  can  readily  see  that  variation  in  a  cer- 
tain degree  can  be  controlled  by  the  man  in  charge.  Food  is 
a  most  influential  factor.  The  high  type  of  beef  animal 
which  we  have  at  the  present  time  is  the  result  of  liberal 
feeding  and  judicious  selection.  The  kind  of  feed  fed  will 
have  a  marked  influence  on  the  conformation  of  the  animal. 
For  instance:  Liberal  feeding  of  roughage  will  develop  the 
digestive  organs,  thus  expand  the  body.  In  this  way  the  large 
barrel  and  capacity  of  the  daily  cow  has  been  produced.  On 
the  other  hand,  by  the  use  of  concentrates  in  feeding  swine 
the  length  and  capacity  of  the  intestines  of  swine  has  been 
materially  increased  over  that  of  the  wild  hog,  which  had  to 
secure  a  considerable  portion  of  his  food  by  grazing. 

The  size  of  the  animal  can  be  materially  increased  or 
decreased  by  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  rations  fed. 
Swine,  for  instance,  when  fed  on  a  ration  of  corn  alone  for  a 
number  of  generations  will  dwindle  in  size  of  body  and  boney 
framework.  When  fed  on  feed  stuffs  rich  in  ash  and  pro- 
tein the  opposite  results  will  be  obtained. 

Selection  is  also  an  important  factor  and  is  one  of  the 
most  important  points  in  accomplishing  variation  of  a  de- 
sirable and  useful  kind.  The  fine  wooled  breeds  of  sheep  are 
a  good  illustration  in  this  respect.  By  good  care  and  proper 
selection  they  have  been  developed  up  to  their  present  state 
of  perfection. 

Selection  always  plays  an  important  part  in  all  desirable 
variation,  whether  it  be  in  sheep,  horses,  cattle  or  swine.  The 
climate  also  has  its  influence.  Its  influence,  however,  is  not 
so  marked  in  the  case  of  our  domestic  animals,  as  in  those 
in  their  wild  state.  This  is  due  to  the  artificial  influences 
which  man  has  introduced  in  animal  management  by  im- 
proved buildings,  thus  better  shelter  from  climatic  changes. 
The  Shetland  pony  and  the  Galloway  breed  of  cattle  are  both 


VARIATION.  317 

good  illustrations  of  climatic  influences.  These  animals  in 
their  native  land  have  to  rough  it  and  are  exposed  to  a 
rugged  climate.  When  introduced  into  other  countries,  where 
they  are  more  liberally  fed  and  better  housed,  they  lose  their 
rugged  coats  and  increase  in  size. 

Variation  as  treated  thus  far  might  properly  be  designated 
as  natural  variation.  We  have  another  kind  which  sometimes 
manifests  itself  in  another  form;  a  rather  unusual  form, 
and  is  called  spontaneous  variation.  11,  differs  from  natural 
or  ordinary  variation  in  that  it  is  much  more  marked 
and  usually  confined  to  individuals  rather  than  to  a 
number  of  animals  in  a  herd  or  breed.  Natural  variation 
usually  is  recognized  as  a  slight  change  in  form,  color,  or 
some  other  point,  and  generally  affects  a  number  of  animals 
in  a  herd  or  breed.  Spontaneous  variation  is  more  marked 
in  its  influence  and  less  general  in  its  distribution,  as  in 
many  instances  not  more  than  one  animal  may  be  affected 
in  a  herd.  It  is  in  a  measure  something  over  which  the 
breeder  has  no  control.  It  usually  comes  as  a  surprise  and 
cannot  be  easily  accounted  for.  Some  claim  that  it  is  due 
to  a  severe  shock  given  to  the  mother,  or  mental  impres- 
sions at  the  time  of  conception,  or  during  the  early  stages 
of  pregnancy.  These  influences  do  not,  however,  explain  all 
the  cases  which  occur.  Some  illustrations  along  this  line 
might  be  cited.  A  calf  with  six  legs,  or  two  heads,  would  be 
a  good  illustration.  A  rabbit  with  one  ear,  any  radical  varia- 
tion in  color,  such  as  a  red  Aberdeen  Angus,  and  so  on,  would 
belong  to  this  class.  On  account  of  the  infrequency  with 
which  these  variations  occur,  they  seldom  if  ever  perpetuate 
themselves. 

Natural  variation  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  under 
the  control  of  man  in  the  higher  development  of  our  animals. 
By  means  of  this  law  man  has  accomplished  much,  and  by  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  same  and  its  application  he  can 
still  do  a  great  deal  towards  the  betterment  of  our  domesti- 
cated animals. 


LECTURE   LXXXII. 


INFLUENCES  AND  CAUSES  OF  FECUNDITY. 

The  percentage  of  increase  in  the  breeding  flock  or  herd  is 
an  important  matter.  In  many  instances  it  determines  in  no 
small  way  the  profits  or  losses  accruing  from  the  breeding 
establishment.  It  is  of  vital  importance  in  the  horse  breed- 
ing business  that  the  percentage  of  increase  should  be  high. 
The  same  is  true  in  the  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  breeding  oper- 
ations. It  has  a  double  influence  in  the  case  of  the  dairy 
cow,  where  the  value  of  the  calf  and  the  product  of  the  cow 
must  both  be  considered.  This  being  the  case,  we  can  readily 
see  the  importance  of  giving  every  attention  possible  to  the 
maintenance  of  a  high  standard  of  productivity  in  the  herd, 
stud  or  flock. 

The  regular  bringing  forth  of  young  freely  and  abundantly 
in  the  case  of  those  animals  which  produce  more  than  one 
at  birth  is  known  as  fecundity.  It  differs  from  prolificacy 
in  that  the  latter  is  used  generally  with  reference  to  the 
number  of  offspring  only  at  one  birth,  while  the  fecundity 
covers  the  ground  of  regularity  as  well  as  the  numbers  at  one 
birth.  It  differs  from  fertility  in  that  fertility  refers  only  to 
an  animal  being  in  condition  to  produce  young,  not  necessarily 
producing  regularly  as  is  implied  by  the  fecundity.  By  fecun- 
dity we  mean  regular  breeding,  free  or  easy  breeding,  and 
large  numbers  at  one  birth  in  the  case  of  those  animals  which 
produce  more  than  one.  It  is  the  very  opposite  of  sterility 
or  any  inclination  toward  barrenness.  It  is  usually  applied  to 
females,  but  is  in  a  measure  applicable  to  males  as  well,  as 
they  no  doubt  have  an  influence  in  this  respect. 

The  reproductive  powers  of  animals  are  easily  influenced. 
A  full  understanding  of  the  causes  which  may  adversely  in- 
fluence fecundity  should  be  of  value  to  the  stockman,  so  that 
he  may  avoid  those  causes  so  far  as  possible  in  his  breeding 
operations. 

One  of  the  most  common  of  the  causes  is  the  lack  of  exer- 
cise due  to  confinement.  While  this  may  affect  both  the 


FECUNDITY.  319 

male  and  the  female,  its  influence  is  usually  most  manifest  in 
the  case  of  males.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  much 
more  likely  to  be  confined  than  females.  Still  in  some  in- 
stances females  which  are  being  prepared  for  exhibition  pur- 
poses may  be  thus  affected.  It  is  highly  important  that  all 
animals  be  given  an  abundance  of  exercise.  In  the  case  of 
male  animals  which  cannot  be  allowed  the  freedom  of  the 
herd,  a  paddock  of  some  kind  should  always  be  supplied  so 
that  exercise  may  be  had  at  the  will  of  the  animal.  Food  may 
also  exert  an  undesirable  influence  on  fecundity.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  when  supplied  in  an  irregular  manner  and  with 
uniform  conditions.  By  uniform  conditions  we  have  refer- 
ence to  scanty  supplies  in  times  of  exposure  to  storms.  A 
scanty  supply  of  food  is  nearly  always  associated  with  de- 
creased fecundity  in  the  herd,  stud  or  flock.  This  is  noticeable 
in  those  animals  which  are  bred  in  countries  of  sparse  pas- 
tures. These  animals  are  always  shy  breeders  in  their  native 
land,  but  when  introduced  into  other  countries  having  a  more 
liberal  supply  of  feed  their  fecundity  improves.  This  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  Spanish  Merino  sheep  which  were  for  many 
years  maintained  in  large  flocks  and  generally  on  scant  ra- 
tions. These  sheep  were  decidedly  lacking  in  their  breeding 
qualities  when  first  introduced  into  this  country.  Since  then 
they  have  made  marked  improvements  in  this  respect.  The 
same  thing  is  true  of  the  range  sheep  bred  in  this  country. 
Their  productive  capacity  is  always  much  improved  when 
they  are  placed  on  arable  land  and  given  liberal  rations. 

The  nature  of  the  food  also  has  an  important  function  in 
this  connection.  Food  which  is  rich  in  sugar  is  undesirable 
and  has  a  bad  influence  on  fecundity.  Food  lacking  in  suc- 
culence also  is  undesirable.  The  breeding  animal  does  best 
and  is  most  fecundant  when  on  grass,  thus  the  necessity  of 
supplying  succulent  feed  during  the  winter  season.  It  keeps 
the  animal  in  a  healthy,  sappy  condition.  Liberal  rations  of 
the  most  nutritious  foodstuffs  always  have  a  favorable  influ- 
ence on  fecundity.  In  fact  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  expect 
good  results  without  liberal  feeding.  In  the  case  of  sheep 
it  is  always  advisable  to  feed  them  very  liberally  at  mating 
time.  By  so  doing  the  yield  of  lambs  may  be  materially  in- 
creased. The  same  principle  applies  to  other  animals. 

Animals  in  very  high  condition,  especially  where  such  is 
the  result  of  corn  feeding  or  some  other  highly  carbonaceous 
feed  which  causes  a  plethoric  condition  of  the  system,  are 


320  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

seldom  if  ever  useful  breeders.  This  overloading  with  fat 
seems  to  in  some  way  have  an  undesirable  influence  on  the 
procreative  organs.  Animals  which  have  been  fitted  for  show 
purposes  should  be  gradually  reduced  in  flesh  by  use  of  roots 
and  plenty  of  out-of-door  exercise.  In  this  way  their  usefulness 
may  be  retained.  Too  close  breeding,  such  as  in-breeding  or 
in-and-in-breeding,  is  very  likely  to  have  an  unfavorable  in- 
fluence on  fecundity.  This  is  very  likely  a  provision  of 
nature  so  as  to  avoid  the  continued  practice  of  too  close  breed- 
ing, which  has  a  tendency  to  concentrate  the  weak  or  unde- 
sirable qualities  in  the  offspring.  This  system  also  injures 
the  size  and  weakens  the  constitution  of  the  animals. 

In  the  case  of  twin  calves,  where  one  is  a  male  and  the  other 
a  female,  the  female  seldom,  if  ever,  breeds.  She  is  called  a 
"free  martin."  The  cause  of  this  barrenness  is  supposed  to 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  generative  organs  of  the  female 
partake  somewhat  after  those  of  the  male. 

Fecundity  to  be  secured  in  the  highest  degree  in  the  breed- 
ing of  animals  should  be  the  aim  of  every  breeder.  To  accom- 
plish this  end  he  must  feed  liberally  on  those  feed  stuffs  most 
nutritious,  give  the  animals  plenty  of  open  air  exercise,  avoid 
a  high  degree  of  flesh  or  fat  in  his  breeding  herd,  and  avoid 
too  close  breeding  of  animals  which  are  in  any  way  related. 


LECTURE   LXXXIII. 


INFLUENCE  OF   IN-BREEDING  AND   LINE   BREEDING. 

Among  the  many  interesting  phases  of  animal  breeding  no 
one  is  of  more  general  interest  or  has  given  rise  to  more  con- 
troversy than  the  subject  of  in  or  in-and-in-breeding.  From 
the  earliest  records  to  those  of  the  present  day  we  find  this 
method  has  been  more  or  less  practiced.  That  it  has  been 
beneficial  cannot  be  questioned.  That  it  has  in  many  in- 
stances been  detrimental  is  also  likewise  true. 

By  in-breeding  or  in-and-in-breeding  is  meant  the  continu- 
ous practice  of  mating  these  animals  which  are  closely  related 
and  then  in  turn  using  the  offspring  in  the  same  way  for  gen- 
eration after  generation.  The  closest  case  of  in-breeding  is 
that  of  brother  and  sister.  The  breeding  of  mother  and  son 
or  father  and  daughter  and  so  on  are  examples  of  close  breed- 
ing. In  fact,  any  method  which  brings  together  animals  of 
close  blood  lines  may  be  called  in-breeding.  Where  this 
method  is  pursued  generation  after  generation  it  is  designated 
as  in-and-in-breeding. 

In-breeding  is  necessary  in  the  beginning  of  any  new  breed 
of  stock,  as  it  is  the  surest  and  shortest  method  yet  known  of 
intensifying  desired  qualities  or  characteristics  in  the  off- 
spring. 

By  following  this  method  of  breeding  for  a  few  years  the 
desired  characteristics  become  fairly  well  intensified,  then 
more  open  or  wider  breeding  methods  are  resorted  to.  In- 
breeding is  oftentimes  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  securing 
some  desired  end  in  many  of  the  oldest  and  best  established 
breeds  and  herds.  For  instance,  some  particular  color,  shape 
of  body,  flow  of  milk  or  quality  of  milk  may  be  obtained  tn 
this  way.  In  the  development  of  the  many  of  the  best  herds 
of  Shorthorn  cattle  in-breeding  was  practiced  in  a  large  de- 
gree. In  some  instances  certain  breeders,  who  for  jealousy  or 
other  reasons  did  not  care  to  patronize  other  breeders  for 
sires,  used  animals  of  their  own  breeding,  thus  followed  in- 
breeding for  generation  after  generation.  There  is  no  doubt 


322  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

but  what  it  is  the  surest  and  quickest  method  yet  known  of 
intensifying  certain  qualities  either  desirable  or  undesirable 
in  the  breeding  herd. 

So  much  for  the  advantages  of  this  method.  We  will  now 
discuss  some  of  the  objectionable  features  of  this  practice. 
One  of  the  first  objectionable  features  noticeable  will  be  a  re- 
duction in  the  size  of  the  animals.  This  is  very  apparent 
in  those  herds  of  cattle  or  swine  in  which  the  sires  have 
been  selected  from  the  male  offspring  of  the  herd  from  time 
to  time  without  regard  to  family  relationships.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  retain  the  size  of  the  animals  when  in-breeding  is  re- 
sorted to  in  the  herd,  stud  or  flock. 

Another  objectionable  feature  of  in-breeding  is  its  influence 
on  the  constitutional  vigor  of  the  herd.  That  a  weakened  con- 
stitution and  greater  delicacy  of  the  system  follows  this  sys- 
tem of  breeding  is  very  evident  from  the  fact  that  tuberculo- 
sis and  other  diseases  is  so  much  more  prevalent  in  those 
families  where  this  system  of  breeding  is  practiced.  As 
stated  in  the  previous  lecture  the  powers  of  fecundity  may 
be  unfavorably  influenced  by  continued  in-breeding.  There  is 
no  doubt  but  what  it  has  a  tendency  in  this  direction.  A  study 
of  the  closely  related  families  of  many  of  our  recognized 
breeds  of  stock  and  the  breeding  records  of  the  same  will  re- 
veal this  fact. 

In-and-in-breeding  caiiriot  be  carried  on  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time  without  evil  results  making  their  appearance. 

They  may  appear  in  any  one  of  the  ways  mentioned,  or  more 
likely  in  all  of  those  mentioned.  A  decrease  in  size  and  a 
weakened  constitution  are  always  noticeable  and  are  very  in- 
jurious from  a  commercial  standpoint. 

Evil  results  from  in-breeding  can  usually  be  remedied  by  the 
introduction  of  new  blood.  In  doing  so  nothing  but  strong, 
vigorous  animals  should  be  selected,  as  weak  animals  would 
not  in  any  way  remedy  the  trouble.  The  most  obvious  objec- 
tion to  in-breeding  or  close  breeding  is  the  difficulty  of  secur- 
ing animals  that  are  free  from  constitutional  defects,  and  the 
danger  arising  from  the  tendency  of  such  defects  to  become 
dominant  in  the  offspring. 

Line  breeding  is  often  practiced.  It  differs  from  in-breeding 
in  that  in  line  breeding  those  animals  of  very  near  relation 
are  not  bred  together.  Those  from  the  same  foundation  stock 
which  are  some  three  or  four  generations  removed  are  used. 
In  the  formation  of  new  breeds  in-breeding  is  of  necessity  used 


IN-BREEDING  AND  LINE  BREEDING.  323 

for  a  while.  This  cannot  be  avoided.  As  soon  as  there  are 
several  animals  of  the  breed,  some  of  which  are  not  very 
closely  related,  line  breeding  is  then  resorted  to.  In  this  way 
the  desirable  characters  are  intensified. 

In  many  of  the  old  and  well  established  herds  and  breeds 
line  breeding  is  practiced.  It  is  then  called  family  breeding. 
In  this  way  the  good  qualities  of  a  certain  family  may  be  pre- 
served and  maintained  for  many  years  without  experiencing 
the  difficulties  resulting  from  the  practice  of  in-breeding. 

This  method  of  breeding  to  be  successful  must  be  prac- 
ticed with  much  care  and  good  judgment.  The  success  of  the 
breeder  will  depend  on  his  ability  to  keep  within  safe  bounds. 
He  must  ever  be  on  the  alert  for  any  indication  of  weakness 
of  constitution,  decrease  in  size  or  any  other  weakness  which 
is  likely  to  follow  in-breeding. 

Both  of  these  lines  of  breeding  were  used  extensively  in 
the  formation  of  our  breeds  of  stock,  also  in  the  establishment 
of  many  of  our  best  herds.  In  the  past  their  presence  was 
in  many  instances  a  necessity.  At  the  present  time  it  is 
doubtful  if  such  methods  are  of  any  special  advantage  in  our 
breeding  operations. 


LECTURE   LXXXIV. 


INFLUENCES    OF    CROSS-BREEDING   AND    GRADING. 

By  the  term  cross-breeding,  in  the  strictest  sense,  we  mean 
the  pairing  of  animals  of  two  distinct  breeds.  In  this  sense 
it  may  be  considered  to  be  the  very  opposite  of  in-and-in- 
breeding.  It  is  the  mating  of  animals  which  are  in  no  wise 
related. 

Unfortunately  the  terms  "cross-breeding,"  "crossing,"  "out- 
breeding"  and  "making  a  cross"  are  very  often  misused  and 
interchanged  so  as  to  mean  the  mixture  of  blood  of  different 
families  of  the  same  breed.  For  example,  in  the  Shorthorn 
breed  of  cattle  we  have  several  distinct  families,  such  as  the 
Bates,  the  Booth  and  the  Cruickshank.  A  man  breeding  the 
Bates  family  might  for  some  reason  or  other  desire  to  use  a 
Booth  bull.  This  would  be  termed  "out-breeding"  or  an  "out 
cross,"  because  it  belonged  to  another  family.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, however,  by  cross-breeding  we  mean  when  animals  of  two 
distinct  breeds  are  used,  such  as  the  Shorthorn  and  the  Gal- 
loway, the  Berkshire  and  Yorkshire,  the  Shropshire  and  Cots- 
wold,  or  the  Clyde  and  Shire. 

This  method  of  breeding  has  been  practiced  extensively  on 
all  classes  of  stock.  It  is  still  used  in  all  sections  of  the 
country  more  or  less  indiscriminately  in  most  cases.  For 
many  years  it  was  used  most  extensively  with  sheep.  The 
Leicester  and  the  Southdown  were  both  used  very  extensively 
for  this  purpose.  In  more  recent  years  the  Shropshire  has 
been  used  in  many  sections  of  this  country  for  crossing  pur- 
poses. 

In  the  central  west  the  crossing  of  the  different  breeds  of 
swine  has  been  very  commonly  practiced.  Several  of  the 
newer  and  larger  breeds  have  been  crossed  with  the  Poland 
China  with  the  hope  of  increasing  their  size  and  the  size  of 
the  litter. 

That  the  crossing  of  breeds  has  been  beneficial  in  the 
building  up  and  improving  many  ouf  breeds  of  stock  cannot 
be  questioned.  Practically  all  of  our  present  improved  breeds 


CROSS  BREEDING.  325 

of  sheep  owe  their  origin  in  part  from  this  method  of  breed- 
ing. The  same  thing  is  true  of  our  breeds  of  swine,  while 
the  same  method  has  been  practiced  in  a  small  measure  at 
least  in  the  building  up  and  improvement  of  our  many  breeds 
of  horses  and  cattle. 

In  the  foundation  and  improvement  of  the  breeds  of  stock 
crossing  was  introduced  for  various  purposes.  In  some  in- 
stances where  the  animals  of  one  breed  were  under-sized,  by 
the  introduction  of  a  cross  from  some  new  breed  which  was 
noted  for  its  size  this  difficulty  could  be  remedied.  In  the 
same  way  many  other  weaknesses  in  the  breeds  were  over- 
come. Certain  of  our  dual  purpose  breeds  of  cattle  were  built 
up  by  the  crossing  of  two  breads;  one  noted  for  its  dairy  prop- 
erties and  the  other  for  its  beef  making  qualities.  To  this 
class  belongs  the  Red  Polls  of  today. 

In  swine  breeding  if  a  breed  were  lacking  in  length,  size 
or  some  other  point  a  cross  from  some  other  breed  which  was 
strong  in  these  points  was  introduced.  In  this  way  much 
good  was  accomplished.  The  crossing  of  pure  breeds  in  this 
country  is  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent.  In  most  in- 
stances it  is  being  used  as  a  short  cut  to  some  desired  end. 
For  instance,  with  the  hope  of  increasing  the  length  of  certain 
breeds  of  hogs,  or  to  increase  the  bone  or  the  size  of  the  litter 
in  those  breeds  which  are  under-sized  or  inclined  to  produce 
small  litters.  It  is  also  used  in  a  similar  way  with  the  hope 
of  improving  our  sheep,  cattle  and  horses. 

In  many  instances  the  first  cross  gives  very  good  results 
where  the  offspring  are  intended  for  market  purposes.  They 
oftentimes  are  an  improvement  over  either  sire  or  dam.  This 
method  is  very  unsatisfactory  where  the  young  are  intended 
for  breeding  purposes,  as  then  you  must  either  go  one  way  or 
the  other.  For  the  purpose  of  producing  market  animals,  it 
is  not  to  be  commended,  as  it  is  too  expensive,  involving  as  it 
does  the  purchase  of  new  breeding  stock  from  time  to  time 
as  the  cross-bred  animals  do  not  make  desirable  breeding 
animals. 

As  previously  stated,  it  is  used  with  the  hope  of  making  a 
short  cut  to  some  desired  end.  This  same  end  can  usually  be 
obtained  by  careful  selection,  feeding  and  management  of  the 
stock  on  hand.  There  is  always  a  cause  for  retrogression 
in  stock.  The  cause  should  be  removed  and  new  blood  of  the 
same  blood  introduced  rather  than  resorting  to  the  uncertain 
method  of  cross-breeding. 


326  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

The  grading  up  of  stock  is  a  subject  which  should  be  of  vital 
interest  to  every  farmer.  This  is  the  class  of  stock  which  is 
to  be  found  on  over  70  per  cent,  of  our  farms.  These  animals 
are  bred  and  reared  for  market  purposes. 

By  grading  up  we  mean  that  system  of  breeding  where  the 
sire  belongs  to  some  one  of  our  pure  breeds  and  the  dams  are 
of  common  or  mixed  breeding.  This  is  the  most  economical 
method  possible  of  improving  our  domestic  animals.  It  is 
the  method  which  each  and  every  man  can  practice.  It  does 
not  involve  very  much  expense.  The  sire  is  the  only  neces- 
sary outlay.  Where  the  herd,  stud  or  flock  is  small,  two  or 
more  men  may  combine  and  use  the  same  sire,  thus  reducing 
the  outlay  for  the  purchase  of  the  same. 

A  very  common  mistake  that  is  often  made  in  the  grading 
up  process  is  to  select  an  inferior  sire.  Quite  often  the  culls 
which  would  not  be  used  for  breeding  in  pure  bred  herds  are 
selected  for  this  purpose.  This  is  a  mistake,  because  in  tho 
grade  or  common  herd  there  is  more  need  for  a  good  indi- 
vidual than  in  many  pure  bred  herds.  He  need  not  be  so  ex- 
pensive as  many  of  the  most  sought  for  sires  in  the  pure  bred 
herds.  It  is  not  so  necessary  that  he  have  all  the  fancy  points 
so  far  as  color  markings  and  other  such  points  are  concerned. 
These  are,  in  a  large  measure,  fads,  something  which  from  a 
packing  standpoinut  is  not  called  for. 

The  sire  for  the  grade  herd  must  possess  those  characteris- 
tics in  a  full  measure  which  are  of  practical  value,  such  as 
beef  form  in  the  beef  animal,  milk  in  the  dairy  cow,  mutton 
and  wool  in  the  sheep,  ability  to  make  economical  gains  of 
the  right  kind  in  the  hog,  and  good  draft  form  in  the  heavy 
horse  and  the  desired  type  of  the  light  horse.  These  are  the 
points  which  mean  money  on  the  markets  of  the  world,  thus 
they  must  be  sought  for  in  the  sire  to  be  used  in  grading  up 
the  herd,  flock  or  stud. 


LECTURE   LXXXV. 


NATURAL   BREEDING. 

In  the  previous  lectures  we  have  discussed  some  of  the 
various  laws  which  are  concerned  in  animal  breeding.  We 
have  also  discussed  some  of  the  methods  commonly  adopted 
in  the  creation,  improving,  and  building  up  of  new  breeds  and 
in  maintaining  those  already  in  existence.  We  have  given 
due  consideration  to  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
various  methods.  In  most  of  them  there  seems  to  be  as  many 
or  more  undesirable  features  as  there  are  commendable  ones. 
In  this  connection  we  will  consider  the  question  of  animal 
breeding  from  a  practical  and  logical  standpoint.  By  natural 
breeding  we  simply  mean  that  method  of  breeding  which  will, 
from  time  to  time,  give  the  best  results  and  apply  to  all  con- 
ditions. In  breeding  Shorthorn  cattle,  for  instance,  instead 
of  breeding  the  Bates,  the  Booth,  the  Cruickshank  or  any  par- 
ticular family,  you  would  select  those  from  any  or  all  of 
these  families  of  excellence,  regardless  of  family  or  color. 
Your  only  motive  would  be  to  breed  a  type  of  Shorthorn 
which  would  approach  as  nearly  as  possible  your  standard  of 
excellence.  A  standard  of  excellence  is  always  necessary, 
else  nothing  definite  and  lasting  can  be  accomplished.  The 
only  restriction  you  would  make  would  be  that  the  animal  in 
question  was  a  pure  bred  Shorthorn  eligible  for  registration 
in  all  the  herd  register  associations  of  that  breed.  This  would 
be  necessary  for  future  protection  from  a  sale  standpoint. 

By  following  this  method  you  would  not  have  to  resort  to 
in-breeding  or  line-breeding  unless  when  such  a  method  was 
the  only  possible  source  through  which  you  could  secure  the 
desired  type  sought  for  in  your  breeding  business.  Breed 
from  the  best  and  the  best  only  would  be  your  motto. 

The  same  thing  would  apply  to  all  other  breeds  and  classes 
of  stock.  There  would  be  no  necessity  for  cross  breeding. 
Each  and  every  breed  would  have  plenty  of  good  animals 
within  its  own  breed. 

This  method  of  breeding  is  the  only  salvation  for  a  number 


328  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

of  our  breeds  at  the  present  time.  It  differs  from  the,  exist- 
ing methods  of  breeding  in  that  it  does  not  run  to  fads  and 
fancies  in  the  line  of  color  markings,  shape  of  ear,  family 
strains,  and  so  on.  This  fad  or  fancy  breeding  has  been  the 
ruination  of  some  of  the  very  best  breeds  of  stock  this  country 
has  ever  seen.  Good  pedigrees  are  desirable,  but  there  is 
such  a  thing  as  paying  too  much  attention  to  the  pedigree  and 
not  enough  to  individual  merit.  They  must  both  be  given  due 
consideration.  The  only  safe  method  of  breeding  stock  is  to 
have  a  standard  of  excellence  and  always  select  animals  with 
the  view  of  approaching  this  end,  regardless  of  fads  and 
fancies,  as  they  will  always  sooner  or  later  bring  you  disaster. 


LECTURE  LXXXVI. 


THE  FORMATION  OF  NEW  BREEDS. 

From  time  to  time  the  student  of  animal  husbandry  is  at- 
tracted by  some  new  breed  of  stock.  These  have  increased 
so  rapidly  that  at  the  present  time  we  have  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  one  hundred  distinct  breeds  of  live  stock  belonging  to 
the  horse,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  kind.  The  advisability  of 
having  so  many  breeds  is  a  pertinent  question  for  discussion. 
There  are  those  who  claim  that  the  more  breeds  of  live  stock 
we  have  the  better,  as  each  and  every  additional  breed  will 
make  the  competition  that  much  keener,  thus  improvement 
along  all  lines  will  inevitably  follow.  There  may  be  some  just 
ground  for  such  claims.  Perhaps  these  new  breeds  do  in  a 
measure  cause  the  breeders  of  the  old  and  well  established 
breeds  to  look  to  the  laurels  of  their  stock  and  strive  to  keep 
them  in  the  foremost  rank  by  improvement. 

There  would  not  be  any  just  reason  for  the  introduction  or 
the  creation  of  something  new  unless  it  was  to  possess  in 
some  measure  at  least  qualities  of  a  desirable  nature  which 
were  not  to  be  found  in  those  which  previously  existed.  This 
being  the  case,  we  would  naturally  expect  that  our  domestic 
animals  have  made  wonderful  strides  along  the  line  of  devel- 
opment during  the  last  century  and  a  half. 

So  much  for  the  claims  of  these  new  breeds.  Many  of  them 
have,  in  a  small  way  at  last,  made  good  their  claims.  Others, 
on  the  contrary,  have  not  been  able  to  measure  up,  thus  have 
never  gained  any  particular  prominence  or  popularity.  Merit 
alone  is  the  test.  Where  there  is  just  merit  there  will  be  a 
permanency,  a  growing  and  lasting  popularity.  This  being 
the  case,  we  should  be  justified  in  assuming  that  those  breeds 
which  made  little  or  no  progress  since"  their  initial  bow  have 
failed  to  measure  to  the  standard.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  it  is 
necessary  to  have  so  many  distinct  breeds  of  stock.  Would 
it  not  be  better  for  the  live  stock  industry  to  have  fewer 
breeds,  thus  stronger  associations,  higher  standards  and  more 
complete  records  of  the  various  animals  of  the  different 
breeds?  Many  of  our  so-called  breeds  of  stock  at  the  present 
time  are  in  reality  sub-breeds  of  some  main  or  parent  breed. 


330  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

By  the  removing  of  the  horns  a  new  breed  is  formed,  which 
does  not  differ  in  any  other  detail  from  the  original  breed, 
except  that  in  many  instances  it  does  not  measure  up  to  the 
mother  breed  from  a  utility  standpoint.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  promoters  of  the  new  breed  have  given  most  of 
their  attention  to  the  removal  of  the  horns,  and  in  so  doing 
have  lost  sight  of  the  points  which  made  the  mother  breed 
prominent  and  worthy  of  its  place.  The  same  thing  is  true 
of  a  large  number  of  our  new  breeds  which  are  claiming  the 
attention  of  the  public.  That  they  are  different  in  some  re- 
spects to  the  former  breeds  cannot  be  denied,  but  that  this 
difference  makes  them  more  desirable  is  another  and  very  dif- 
ferent question.  In  many  instances  the  utility  feature  is  lack- 
ing, thus  the  new  breed  is  of  no  real  value  to  the  live  stock 
industry. 

The  time  has  come  when  a  few  of  the  more  substantial 
breeds  are  likely  to  gain  in  public  favor  and  many  of  the  new 
breeds  or  sub-breeds  are  likely  to  gradually  give  away  to  their 
more  useful  competitors. 

In  the  formation  of  a  new  breed  the  greatest  precautions 
should  be  taken  to  retain  all  the  desirable  qualities  of  our 
present  animals  and  to  introduce  such  new  features  as  will 
be  of  practical  value  to  the  industry,  rather  than  to  just  have 
something  different  from  what  previously  existed.  The  great- 
est of  care  and  the  best  of  judgment  should  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  of  the  foundation  stock.  Generally  too  much 
leniency  is  allowed  in  this  respect.  By  so  doing  animals  of 
inferior  quality  will  be  admitted  which  will  always  be  a  detri- 
ment to  the  breed. 

Before  a  new  breed  can  be  formed  and  a  special  and  sepa- 
rate registry  association  be  organized  for  such  a  breed,  evi- 
dence must  be  available  that  this  so-called  new  breed  is  dif- 
ferent in  some  distinctive  feature  from  all  other  breeds.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  it  must  have  merit  to  start  a  new  breed, 
but  this  feature  will  have  to  be  demonstrated  before  it  will 
become  popular  in  the  eyes  of  the  people. 

In  organizing  a  registry  association  only  certain  animals 
possessing  the  desired  characteristics  should  be  registered  as 
foundation  stock.  Thereafter  no  animals  should  be  registered 
except  those  whose  sire  and  dam  are  foundation  stock  or  trace 
directly  to  them.  In  this  way  the  more  recent  associations 
have  been  organized  and  maintained  for  the  protection  of  the 
owners  of  this  particular  breed  in  question. 


POULTRY   MANAGEMENT. 


LECTURE    LXXXVII. 


THE  POULTRY  INDUSTRY  AND  ITS  RELATION 
TO  THE  FARM. 

Although  the  poultry  industry  is  now  a  large  one,  we  can 
see  no  reason  why  it  should  not  in  a  short  time  very  materi- 
ally increase  its  present  output  both  in  meat  and  eggs. 

A  little  more  thought  on  our  part  put  into  the  care  and 
management  of  our  fowls  and  a  greater  attention  to  the  mar- 
ket demands  are  the  main  factors  that  will  operate  to  make  of 
the  poultry  industry  one  of  the  most  productive  in  connection 
with  our  farm  operations.  The  thin,  blue  colored,  bony  car- 
casses that  hang  on  hooks  in  front  of  grocery  and  meat  market 
windows  are  not  inviting  nor  are  they  conducive  to  making  a 
market  for  the  meat  products  of  the  poultry  flock.  What  we 
should  do  is  to  find  out  the  type  of  fowl  that  will  produce  a 
plump  breasted,  well  fattened  chicken  with  a  minimum  of 
bones,  neck  and  waste  matter — a  chicken  that  will  mature 
early  and  furnish  the  largest  percentage  of  nutritious  and 
palatable  meat  with  the  smallest  percentage  of  offal.  Boilers, 
roasters  and  broilers  of  this  sort  properly  killed,  prepared  and 
put  on  the  market  will  sell  readily  and  will  create  a  demand 
for  more  of  the  same  sort. 

In  the  production  of  eggs,  too,  there  is  great  room  for  im- 
provement. A  proper  understanding  of  the  markets  as  well 
as  an  understanding  of  the  breeds  and  their  care  and  manage- 
ment for  the  best  production  of  eggs  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year  is  imperative  in  order  to  derive  the  maximum  returns 
from  this  end  of  the  poultry  business.  Clean,  fresh  eggs 
always  command  the  highest  price  on  the  market.  Brown 
eggs  on  some  markets  are  worth  from  3  to  5  cents  more  than 
white  ones.  Eggs  uniform  in  size  and  color  are  more  attract- 
ive and  bring  better  returns  to  the  producer.  Winter  eggs  are 
always  in  great  demand  and  bring  high  prices. 


332  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

On  the  ordinary  farm  poultry  may  be  counted  on  to  give  a 
large  return  for  the  amount  of  capital  invested  and  cost  of 
labor  to  care  for  them.  They  scratch  about  and  hunt  for 
worms  and  grubs;  pick  up  seeds  that  would  otherwise  be 
wasted,  eat  the  refuse  from  the  garden,  such  as  lettuce,  cab- 
bage leaves,  beet  and  onion  tops,  peas  and  corn.  In  the  or- 
chard, too,  they  make  their  presence  felt  by  destroying  in- 
sects such  as  the  plum  curculio.  They  take  the  waste  prod- 
ucts from  the  kitchen  and  the  dairy. 

It  is  true  that  poultry  at  certain  times  make  themselves 
somewhat  of  a  nuisance,  but  the  same  might  be  said  of  all  our 
animals  if  preventive  precautions  are  not  taken.  When  the 
garden  is  being  made  and  when  the  small  fruit  is  getting  ripe 
the  flock  should  be  shut  up  in  suitable  quarters  or  shut  out 
from  the  garden  by  means  of  hen-proof  wire  fence. 

We  can  think  of  no  greater  source  of  pleasure  and  profit 
from  the  same  outlay  than  that  derived  from  the  investment 
in  a  medium  sized,  well  selected,  well  cared  for  flock  of  poul- 
try on  the  farm. 


LECTURE    LXXXVIII. 


BUILDINGS,  SHEDS  AND  YARDS  SUITABLE  FOR 
POULTRY. 

Poultry,  like  other  classes  of  live  stock  on  the  farm,  require 
suitable  protection  if  we  are  to  look  for  the  greatest  gains 
from  our  flock.  The  different  forms  of  houses — to  suit  the 
fancier,  specialist  and  farmer  where  only  a  few  fowls  com- 
partively  are  kept— though  differing  somewhat  in  size,  design, 
materials  used,  conveniences  and  cost,  must  be,  in  the  main, 
constructed  upon  the  same  general  principles  if  the  greatest 
success  in  the  end  is  attained.  Successful  results  have  been 
achieved  in  so  many  different  kinds  of  houses  that  it  would  be 
impossible  in  this  lecture  to  describe  them,  so  we  shall  con- 
tent ourselves  with  the  outline  of  a  few  of  the  principles  that 
prevail  in  all  well  managed  poultry  houses. 

In  the  first  place,  we  all  are  agreed  that  a  poultry  house 
should  stand  on  high,  dry  ground — preferably  a  gravelly  or 
sandy  knoll,  as  such  locations  easily  drain  themselves.  If 
such  are  not  to  be  had,  then  the  scraper  should  be  used  to 
make  a  slightly  elevated  spot  on  which  to  build.  If  advantage 
can  be  taken  of  a  windbreak  or  a  location  behind  other  build- 
ings so  as  to  protect  it  from  the  cold  north  and  west  winds, 
all  the  better. 

Successful  poultry  raising  so  far  as  housing  is  concerned 
makes  the  following  demands:  That  there  be  furnished  a 
large  amount  of  room,  light,  warmth,  pure  air,  dryness,  free- 
dom from  draughts,  roosts,  nests,  comfort  and  cleanliness. 
The  sheds,  if  such  are  provided,  and  the  yards  should  furnish 
ample  space  for  exercise. 

Room.  Fowls  should  not  be  crowded,  nor  is  it  wise  to  keep 
them  in  very  large  flocks;  much  success  has  been  achieved 
where  only  15  to  25  hens  were  kept  in  a  bunch,  while  success 
has  attended  also  the  bunching  of  from  60  to  70.  It  is  safer 
to  deal  in  the  smaller  numbers,  as  one  is  less  apt  to  experience 
the  losses  that  sometimes  result  from  housing  in  the  larger 


334  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

flocks.  If  but  one  room  is  provided,  each  fowl  should  have 
from  ten  to  fifteen  square  feet  of  floor  space.  If  roosting  and 
scratching  pens  are  in  separate  apartments,  each  fowl  should 
have  five  to  six  square  feet  of  floor  space  in  roosting  pen  'and 
ten  to  twelve  in  the  scratching  pen.  Provide  a  roosting  space 
of  seven  to  eight  inches  for  the  smaller  Mediterranean  fowls, 
such  as  the  Leghorns,  eight  to  ten  for  Rocks  and  Wyandottes, 
and  ten  to  twelve  for  the  larger  Asiatic  breeds — the  Brahmas 
and  Cochins.  In  the  yard  in  summer  from  one  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  square  feet  of  grass  should  be  allotted 
each  fowl. 

Light.  Sunlight  purifies  the  floors,  roosts  and  drop  boards 
and  helps  to  keep  the  fowl  in  a  vigorous,  healthy  condition. 
In  order  to  make  provision  for  a  large  admission  of  sunlight 
at  least  one-third  of  the  south  and  east  sides  should  be  glass. 
The  windows  if  placed  high  up  will  allow  the  sun  to  do  its 
most  effective  work  in  shining  into  the  remotest  corners  of 
the  house.  In  some  cases  windows  are  placed  in  the  roof  of 
the  scratching  pens. 

Warmth.  The  roosting  apartment  must  be  warm  and  com- 
fortable for  the  fowls  while  at  rest.  In  order  to  make  the 
roosting  apartment  warm  a  small  part  may  be  curtained  off 
from  the  rest  of  the  house  so  that  the  heat  from  the  fowls' 
bodies  will  warm  it  sufficiently.  The  scratching  or  exercising 
part  should  be  light  and  cool,  but  free  from  draughts. 

Pure  Air.  Ventilation  must  be  secured,  as  fowls  cannot  re- 
main in  a  healthy  condition  in  foul,  damp,  stagnant  air.  But 
in  securing  change  of  air  we  must  be  careful  to  prevent 
draughts,  especially  in  those  apartments  where  the  fowls 
roost. 

Roosts.  Roosts  should  be  made  of  2x3s.  They  should  be 
planed  off  smooth,  rounded  slightly  on  the  upper  corners  and 
should  be  free  from  splits  or  cracks,  as  vermin  lodge  in  these 
crevices  and  are  hard  to  dislodge.  The  roosts  should  be 
placed  low— not  more  than  three  feet  from  the  floor,  and 
should  be  at  least  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  from  the  wall. 
If  more  than  one  roost  is  used,  all  should  be  on  a  level,  for 
if  you  put  one  higher  than  the  other  the  fowls  will  crowd  for 
the  higher  roost.  Low  roosts  are  easier  to  mount  and  to  fly 
from.  A  drop  board  should  be  placed  under  the  roosts  twenty 
inches  in  width  for  single  roosts  and  thirty-six  inches  for  two 
roosts.  This  must  be  made  of  planed  inch  lumber  so  that  it 
can  be  easily  cleaned  at  last  twice  a  week. 


BUILDINGS  FOR  POULTRY.  335 

The  nests  can  be  placed  under  the  drop  board.  They  must 
be  fifteen  inches  wide  and  eighteen  inches  deep.  Hens  like 
to  steal  away  in  a  quiet  place  to  lay,  so  it  is  best  to  leave  the 
opening  on  the  side  next  to  the  wall.  A  little  drop  door  may 
be  arranged  on  the  back  from  which  to  gather  the  eggs. 

Roosts,  nests  and  drop  boards  should  be  so  arranged  that 
all  can  be  taken  out  easily,  should  you  wish  to  give  the  quar- 
ters a  thorough  cleaning.  The  inside  must  be  whitewashed 
now  and  again.  This  will  add  to  the  appearance  as  well  as 
imprison  vermin  that  may  be  lurking  about  in  the  crevices. 

A  ground  floor  serves  a  good  purpose.  Raise  it  four  or  five 
inches  above  the  ground  outside.  Put  in  three  inches  of  coal 
ashes  or  gravel  and  fill  in  the  remainder  with  sand  or  make 
it  entirely  of  sand.  In  August  the  upper  two  inches  of  sand 
may  be  removed  and  the  space  filled  in  again  with  fresh  ma- 
terial. Let  this  be  done  early  so  that  the  floor  may  be  well 
dried  out  before  the  poultry  have  to  be  enclosed.  The  sand 
floor  should  then  be  covered  with  chaffed  clover  hay,  alfalfa 
or  straw,  which  must  be  frequently  renewed.  As  has  been 
already  mentioned,  the  drop  board  and  roosts  should  be,  put  in 
so  that  they  may  be  easily  taken  out  for  cleaning  and  a  sun 
bath. 

The  partitions  ought  to  be  made  of  matched  lumber  to  about 
four  feet  in  height  and  the  remainder  of  wire  netting.  Each 
partition  should  have  a  door  large  enough  for  a  person  to 
walk  through.  Down  at  the  bottom  of  the  wall,  leading  from 
the  pen  to  the  yard  or  scratching  pen,  there  should  be  a  small 
opening,  10x12  inches,  through  which  the  hens  may  pass  in 
and  out. 

A  cheap,  convenient,  suitable  house  for  the  ordinary  farm 
is  made  somewhat  as  fellows:  It  is  made  in  the  form  of  a 
lean-too,  sixteen  feet  long,  ten  feet  wide,  eight  feet  high  at 
front  and  four  at  rear.  The  frame  is  made  of  2x8  scantling. 
It  is  single  bearded  and  battened  all  around  except  in  the 
little  roosting  compartment  farthest  from  the  door.  This  part 
is  made  warm  by  means  of  paper  and  matched  lumber  on  the 
outside,  and  front  of  the  roosts  there  is  hung  a  canvas  drop 
curtain  which,  in  severe  weather,  may  be  lowered  to  keep  in 
the  heat  generated  by  the  fowls  themselves.  A  door  may  be 
left  in  the  corner,  and  this  doorway  has  hung  over  it  a  piece 
of  sacking  or  something  of  that  nature.  In  the  upper  front  is 
a  large  window  for  the  admission  of  light.  A  pen  of  this 
kind  has  given  excellent  satisfaction  for  the  production  of 


336  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

winter  eggs;  the  hens  continuing  to  lay  except  in  the  severest 
snap. 

Large  yards  are  necessary  for  the  pultry  to  run  in  during 
the  summer  months  if  they  must  be  confined.  Let  the  yard 
be  at  least  fifty  feet  long  by  thirty  feet  wide.  If  there  are 
trees  in  this  yard,  all  the  better,  as  they  will  provide  the  shade 
that  is  required  during  the  hot  weather.  The  yard  may  be 
fenced  with  wire  netting  six  feet  high  for  the  larger  fowls, 
while  at  least  a  seven  or  eight  foot  fence  will  be  required  for 
the  lighter  breeds.  The  yard  should  be  well  grassed,  clean 
and  supplied  with  pure  water  for  drinking  purposes. 


LECTURE   LXXXIX. 


MARKETABLE   POULTRY   PRODUCTS— EGGS  AND   MEAT. 

Spring  and  summer  are  the  seasons  most  favorable  and  nat- 
ural for  the  economic  production  of  eggs.  An  egg  is  never 
more  palatable  than  when  it  is  fresh.  Brown  eggs  are  pre- 
ferred on  many  markets  because  customers  have  taken  a 
fancy  to  them  for  table  use  and  for  cooking.  It  should  be  our 
business  to  put  forth  strong  efforts  to  satisfy  a  demand  for 
those  products  which,  with  a  little  care  on  our  part,  can  be 
easily  supplied  from  our  farms.  Large  eggs  are  preferred  to 
small  ones.  The  old  country  market  demands  that  an  egg 
weigh  at  least  two  ounces  to  be  up  to  the  standard.  Ten 
dozen  should  weigh  fifteen  pounds.  For  every  half  pound 
below  the  standard  the  price  drops  at  the  rate  of  about  one 
cent  per  dozen. 

Clean  eggs  are  sought  for  rather  than  the  unsightly  dirty 
eggs  that  are  too  often  found  in  the  egg  basket  and  box  during 
the  spring  and  summer  months.  When  the  eggs  are  gathered 
it  would  not  take  very  long  to  see  to  it  that  dirty  eggs  are 
washed  before  being  put  away. 

Uniformity  in  any  product  adds  to  its  attractiveness.  If 
eggs  are  sorted  into  lots  of  small,  medium  and  large  they 
will  on  many  markets  bring  a  larger  price  than  when  lumped 
off  without  any  assortment  having  been  made. 

When  cleaning  and  assorting  have  been  attended  to  the  eggs 
require  to  be  set  away  in  a  cool,  dry  place — 40  degrees  to  50 
degrees  F. — where  they  will  remain  without  harm  for  a  few 
days  until  they  are  marketed.  A  small  12-dozen  case  with 
paper  apartments  makes  a  very  convenient  means  of  storing 
away  the  eggs  and  carrying  them  to  market.  The  merchant 
must  see  to  it,  too,  that  the  eggs  are  kept  cool  and  dry  until 
delivered  to  his  customers.  By  looking  after  these  details  a 
good  substantial  trade  can  be  worked  up  that  will  result  favor- 
ably for  the  producer.  Winter  eggs  are  always  in  demand  and 
bring  the  very  highest  prices.  It  should  be  the  ambition  of 
the  farmer  to  try  if  possible  to  secure  the  means  and  methods 
of  producing  this  high  priced  commodity. 


338  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

Spring  and  summer  eggs  are  bought  up  and  put  in  cola 
storage  at  a  little  above  32  degrees  and  kept  to  supply  the 
winter  markets,  though  these  eggs  cannot  bring  the  price  of 
fresh-laid  eggs.  It  has  been  found  on  investigation  that  eggs 
in  shipment,  if  close  to  apples  or  onions  or  such  like,  will  take 
on  bad-  flavors. 

Egg  preservatives  are  used  to  keep  eggs  until  the  winter 
months.  The  egg  thus  preserved  cannot  take  the  place  of  the 
fresh  egg  for  table  use,  but  does  very  well  for  cooking  pur- 
poses. The  lime  water  preservative  is  prepared  by  using  one 
pound  of  fresh  lime  in  four  gallons  of  water.  Stir  the  mixture 
well  and  allow  to  settle.  Drain  off  the  liquid  into  a  crock; 
which  should  be  closely  covered  to  prevent  the  air  from  enter- 
ing, as  it  weakens  the  solution.  Fresh  eggs  may  be  put  into 
this  every  day  as  they  are  gathered.  Be  careful  not  to  put 
cracked  or  spoiled  eggs  in,  as  they  will  destroy  the  others. 

Poultry  meat  is  considered  a  delicacy  if  it  can  be  secured 
in  the  proper  form.  In  the  late  winter  and  early  spring  months 
broilers,  small  plump  chickens,  weighing  from  one  to  two  and 
a  half  pounds,  are  in  great  demand,  and  because  of  their 
scarcity  command  a  high  price.  Roasters  at  three  to  four 
pounds  are  in  demand  at  almost  any  season.  Can  we  not 
plan  to  satisfy,  to  some  extent  at  least,  the  demands  along 
these  lines  that  are  made  by  the  people  in  our  towns  and 
cities?  We  must  carefully  develop  this  industry  and  secure  for 
our  care  and  labor  remunerative  returns.  Study  the  markets 
to  find  out  exactly  what  is  wanted.  A  creamy,  white-fleshed, 
plump  breasted  three  and  one-half  to  four-pound  chicken  is  the 
one  which  seems  to  give  greatest  satisfaction  to  our  custom- 
ers, and  these  are  by  all  means  the  cheapest  for  us  to  pro- 
duce. The  white  breast  meat  constitutes  the  most  edible,  de- 
licious parts  of  the  chicken.  We  should  aim  to  secure  this 
kind  with  short  wings  and  legs  and  short  neck  and  small  head. 
Light  colored  birds  usually  dress  cleaner  than  the  darker 
ones.  Customers  do  not  like  any  feathers  on  the  legs,  nor 
do  they  like  to  see  any  development  of  spurs.  Coarse  legged 
poultry  indicates  a  coarseness  of  bone  throughout  and  this 
means  a  large  per  cent,  of  offal.  Lean,  scrawny  chickens  will 
contain  about  70  per  cent,  to  75  per  cent,  of  offal.  The  well 
fatted  chicken  contains  a  much  larger  percentage  of  edible 
meat  and  this  meat  is  of  a  much  superior  quality,  being  ten- 
der, juicy  and  of  delicate  flavor,  depending,  of  course,  upon 
the  age  of  the  bird.  Old  cocks  and  hens  are  tough  and 


POULTRY  PRODUCTS. 


339 


too  highly  flavored,  and  are  not  desirable  from  a  market 
standpoint.  These  delicacies  in  the  form  of  poultry  products 
are  not  all  to  be  sold ;  the  farmer  and  his  family  should  share 
in  the  pleasures  that  are  a  direct  result  of  their  labors. 


LECTURE  XC. 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY. 

Poultry  is  divided  into  breeds  which  may  be  classified  (1) 
according  to  use,  that  is,  from  a  utility  standpoint  or  from  a 
fancier's  standpoint,  or  (2)  they  may  be  classified  according 
to  origin,  e.  g.,  the  Rocks  and  Wyandottes  are  spoken  of  as 
American  breeds;  the  Leghorns,  Andalusians,  Minorcas,  Black 
Spanish,  as  Mediterranean  breeds,  and  the  Brahmas  and  Co- 
chins as  Asiatic  breeds;  these  may  be  spoken  of  again  as  the 
medium,  light  and  heavy  classes — layers  and  non-layers,  sit- 
ters and  non-sitters.  For  reference  we  give  a  short  descrip- 
tion of  a  few  of  the  more  important  breeds. 

Light  Breeds — Leghorns.  The  Leghorns  belong  to  the  light 
breeds;  they  are  great  egg  producers,  especially  during  the 
summer  months.  Some  strains  will  produce  eggs  in  winter. 
They  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  sit.  The  eggs  are  white  and 
rather  small.  They  require  warmer  quarters  in  winter  than 
some  of  the  other  breeds  because  of  their  large  combs,  espe- 
cially the  males.  They  are  very  active  fowls  and  are  great 
rustlers.  They  are  too  small  to  make  good  meat  producers 
except  as  broilers. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  Leghorns,  chief  of  which  are 
the  Single-Combed  White,  Brown  and  Buff.  The  Black,  Rose- 
Comb  White  and  Brown  are  also  raised.  The  egg  of  the  Sin- 
gle-Comb White  is  a  little  larger  than  that  of  the  other  varie- 
ties. Both  males  and  females  have  large  combs.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  they  do  not  get  these  frozen  in  winter. 

Blue  Andalusians.  The  Andalusians  are  midway  in  size 
between  the  Leghorns  and  Minorcas.  They  too  are  non-sitters 
and  lay  large  white  eggs.  They  do  their  best  work  in  sum- 
mer. They  are  blue  in  color,  but  cannot  be  depended  upon  to 
breed  true.  They  are  hardy,  vigorous  and  good  mothers. 

Minorcas.  Minorcas  are  the  largest  of  the  light  breeds. 
There  are  several  varieties,  chief  of  which  is  the  Single-Comb 
Black.  The  Single-Comb  White  and  Rose-Comb  Black  are 
bred  to  some  extent.  They  are  fairly  hardy  and  vigorous  and 
lay  a  large  white  egg.  The  standard  weight  for  hen  is  6y2 
pounds;  cock,  8  pounds. 


BREEDS  OF  POULTRY.  341 

American  Breeds — Plymouth  Rocks.  Barred,  White,  and 
Buff  are  the  three  varieties  which  constitute  this  breed.  The 
oldest  and  most  popular  of  these  is  the  Barred  variety.  All 
three  are  fairly  hardy,  and  lay  large  brown  eggs.  They  are 
only  fairly  good  summer  layers,  but  can  usually  be  depended 
upon  for  winter  eggs.  They  are  sitters  and  make  good  moth- 
ers. They  have  single  comb,  clean,  yellow  legs,  and  yellow 
skin,  and  make  a  very  good  utility  bird. 

The  standard  weight  for  hen  is  7%  pounds;  cock,  9% 
pounds. 

Wyandottes.  Of  these  there  are  the  White,  Black,  Buff, 
Silver  Laced,  Golden  Laced,  Partridge,  and  Silver  Pencilled 
varieties.  The  White  variety  is  the  most  popular  one  from 
a  market  standpoint.  In  general  characteristics  they  resemble 
the  Rocks,  but  are  a  little  blockier,  with  a  rose  comb,  and  are 
a  pound  lighter  in  weight. 

Orpingtons.  Black,  White,  and  Buff  varieties  constitute 
this  breed.  They  are  about  a  pound  heavier  than  the  Rocks, 
possess  the  same  general  characteristics,  tut  have  white 
legs  and  flesh.  They  lay  large  brown  eggs,  are  fairly  good 
summer  layers,  and  do  well  in  winter.  They  are  sitters  and 
make  good  mothers.  They  usually  have  single  combs. 

Rhode  Island  Red.  The  Rhode  Island  Red  is  a  compara- 
tively new  fowl  which  was  originated  in  Rhode  Island.  They 
are  said  to  be  fairly  hardy,  and  only  fair  winter  and  summer 
layers,  are  sitters,  but  only  fair  mothers;  a  brown  egg  breed, 
have  yellow  legs  and  skin  and  mature  early.  They  are  red- 
dish buff  in  color,  with  a  strong  tendency  to  black  colored 
tails  and  wings;  also  black  ticking  in  the  hackle  feathers. 
Weight  of  hen  is  5^  pounds;  cock,  7  pounds. 

Games.  The  Indian  Game  is  of  interest  to  the  farmer  be- 
cause of  the  large  amount  of  breast  meat  which  they  carry. 
They  are  only  fair  layers  of  medium  sized  brown  eggs.  They 
give  a  good  account  of  themselves  when  crossed  with  Rocks, 
Dorkings  and  Wyandottes  for  the  production  of  a  market 
carcass. 

Dorkings.  The  Silver  Grey  Dorking  is  the  favorite  vari- 
ety of  this  breed.  They  are  exceptionally  good  market 
fowls,  only  fair  layers  of  large,  white  eggs.  They  have  white 
legs  and  skin  and  possess  five  toes.  They  are  perhaps  not 
quite  so  hardy  as  some  of  the  other  breeds  and  do  not  stand 
confinement  very  well.  Weight  of  hen,  6%  pounds;  cock,  8 
pounds. 


LECTURE  XCI. 


SELECTION,    CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    BREEDING 

STOCK. 

Pure-bred  or  high-grade  poultry  are  much  more  economical 
to  raise  than  the  ordinary  scrub  that  finds  a  place  on  so  many 
of  our  farms.  In  the  matter  of  egg  production  they  give  much 
better  returns  both  in  summer  and  winter,  and  in  the  pro- 
duction of  meat  they  put  on  flesh  faster,  cheaper  and  present  a 
more  uniform  product  in  size,  shape  and  color  and  the  flesh 
possesses  a  more  desirable  flavor. 

The  farmer  should,  then,  select  some  good,  pure  breed  that 
will  suit  his  conditions. 

For  the  production  of  summer  eggs,  the  White  or  Brown 
Leghorns,  the  Minorcas  or  Andalusians  are  all  good,  and  will 
fill  the  egg  basket  with  medium-sized  white  eggs.  But  these 
breeds  give  poor  returns  as  meat  producers  and  are  of  little 
or  no  account  as  winter  layers.  Nor  are  they  good  sitters. 
What  the  farmer  wants  is  a  general  purpose  breed  that  will 
give  a  good  account  of  itself  as  an  egg  producer  and  at  the 
same  time  produce  good  market  fowls.  The  Barred  Rock, 
White  Wyandotte  and  Orpington  all  stand  in  high  favor  as 
general  purpose  breeds.  The  Rocks  and  Wyandottes  have 
yellow  legs  and  yellow  skins,  which  put  them  in  general 
favor  on  many  of  our  American  markets,  while  the  Orpington 
is  a  white-legged,  white-skinned  breed,  which  character  makes 
it  a  very  suitable  bird  for  the  English  market  and  some  of  our 
home  markets.  The  Dorking  is  the  most  typical  meat  pro- 
ducing bird,  but  it  is  a  forager  and  does  not  do  so  well  in 
confinement,  nor  is  it  as  hardy  as  the  other  three  breeds 
mentioned. 

In  choosing  a  breed  to  suit  our  conditions  it  is  well  to  look 
to  the  particular  strain  as  well,  for  much  time  has  been  spent 
in  the  development  of  particular  strains  as  heavy  egg  pro- 
ducers, as  sitters  or  non-sitters,  as  winter  or  summer  layers. 
Having  chosen  our  breed  we  should  then  aim  by  selection, 
care  and  management  of  our  breeding  stock  to  improve  our 


CARE  OF  BREEDING  STOCK.  343 

flock  along  those  lines  that  will  tend  to  make  them  more 
productive  of  eggs  and  flesh. 

Our  breeding  birds  should  be  carefully  selected  according 
to  the  standard  already  described. 

In  early  spring  fifteen  to  twenty  strong,  vigorous  females 
should  be  enclosed  in  a  clean,  dry,  light,  airy,  roomy  pen 
with  a  cock  possessing  similar  characters  to  those  of  the 
females — all  good  representatives  of  their  breed.  They  should 
be  kindly  treated  at  all  times — never  frightened  by  dogs  or 
strangers.  Their  diet  should  consist  largely  of  green  foods 
and  meats  with  a  light  grain  ration.  Give  them  whole  grain 
in  their  litter  for  their  early  morning  feed.  This  may  be  scat- 
tered the  evening  before.  They  will  scratch  about  in  search 
for  this  and  will  gain  the  exercise  so  necessary  to  the  pro- 
duction of  strong,  vigorous  germs  in  the  eggs  to  be  hatched. 
Give  them  a  mash  at  9  o'clock  and  then  some  ground  bone 
or  n:eat  and  some  roots,  carrots,  turnips  or  mangels  at  noon, 
and  a  mash  of  mixed  grains,  bran  and  shorts  and  sour  milk 
at  4  o'clock,  and  then  some  whole  grain,  oats  or  cracked 
corn  the  last  thing  before  going  to  roost.  Feed  plenty  this 
time  so  that  there  may  be  some  left  for  them  to  search  after 
in  the  morning.  Supply  them  with  grit  and  shell-producing 
elements,  such  as  gravel,  ashes,  lime  or  dried  egg  shells.  Keep 
plenty  of  clean,  fresh  water  before  them  at  all  times.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  good  results  will  not  follow  if  hens  are 
fed  only  grain  foods,  vegetables  and  meat  are  necessary.  Too 
much  grain  causes  the  hens  to  get  fat  and  lazy;  the  eggs,  if 
they  lay  any,  will  be  weak  in  the  germ  or  perhaps  thin-shelled 
and  easily  broken.  Breeding  stock  must  have  exercise  and 
you  must  see  that  they  are  induced  to  take  it. 

No  eggs  should  be  saved  for  hatching  until  the  cock  has 
been  with  the  hens  at  least  ten  days.  Where  we  are  trying 
to  improve  our  flock  as  egg  producers  we  should  use  trap 
nests  so  that  a  record  can  be  kept  of  our  breeding  hens 
through  all  their  laying  period,  and  by  setting  eggs  from  those 
that  are  heavy  layers  we  shall  perpetuate  the  egg  laying  habit 
in  their  offspring.  We  can,  too,  in  this  way  perpetuate  any 
of  the  desirable  qualities  which  characterize  the  parent  stock. 
When  a  hen  wishes  to  set,  make  a  nest  for  her  in  a  quiet 
place  where  she  is  not  likely  to  be  disturbed.  The  nest 
should  be  about  fifteen  inches  square.  Place  a  sod  in  the  bot- 
tom and  cover  it  with  chaff  or  straw.  Dust  some  sulphur  in 
the  nest  or  place  in  it  some  dried  tanzy.  Do  not  set  a  hen 


344  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

in  an  old  nest,  as  it  is  usually  infested  with  vermin.  It  is 
easier  to  prevent  the  chicks  from  being  infested  with  mites 
than  it  is  to  cure  them.  It  is  well  to  place  under  the  hen 
for  the  first  few  hours  some  china  eggs  in  order  to  find  out 
if  she  is  going  to  be  a  good  sitter.  Put  a  box  over  her  for 
the  night.  After  twelve  hours  take  these  away  and  place 
under  her  thirteen  of  the  eggs  from  the  breeding  flock.  See 
that  only  uniformly  large  eggs  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
They  give  stronger  and  more  vigorous  chicks.  Keep  the  hen 
well  supplied  with  food  and  fresh  water.  When  the  eggs  have 
been  under  the  hen  eight  days  they  may  be  examined  by 
holding  them  up  to  the  light  of  a  house  lamp.  The  infertile 
eggs  will  at  this  time  appear  clear,  while  the  fertile  ones 
will  appear  dark.  If  a  number — say  three — of  the  hens  have 
been  set  at  the  same  time  it  may  be  that  all  the  fertile  eggs 
can  at  the  end  of  eight  days  be  placed  under  two  of  the 
hens. 

It  is  a  difficult  problem  to  get  eggs  suitable  for  hatching 
during  the  winter  months  where  hens  have  to  be  confined. 
Where  the  breeding  flock  can  have  the  run  of  a  manure  pile, 
scratch  about  and  have  an  abundance  of  out-of-door  exercise, 
much  better  results  are  obtained.  When  in  confinement  the 
germ  is  usually  so  weak  that  it  dies  in  the  shell,  or  if  a  chick 
hatches  it  is  so  weak  that  it  has  but  a  short  lifetime. 

Pour  cocks  to  a  hundred  hens  when  running  loose  together 
will  give  a  large  percentage  of  fertile  eggs.  When  the  breed- 
ing season  is  over  the  cocks  should  be  separated  from  the 
hens  and  put  in  their  own  enclosures  and  fed  a  diet  of  green 
food,  and  a  ration  similar  to  that  of  the  laying  hen.  His 
quarters  should  always  be  warm  enough  so  that  there  will  be 
no  danger  of  his  comb  freezing. 


LECTURE  XCII. 


JUDGING   POULTRY   FROM   A   UTILITY  STANDPOINT. 

This  lecture  is  intended  to  enable  one  to  pick  out  a  utility 
bird;  but  it  is  not  intended  to  be  used  in  judging  poultry 
from  a  fancier's  standpoint  any  farther  than  conformation 
is  concerned. 

A  utility  bird  up  to  the  required  weight  given  for  the 
standard  of  the  breed  for  a  good  sized,  early-maturing  bird 
is  what  is  wanted  for  the  market.  As  the  feeding  bird  in 
order  to  be  an  economic  producer  must  possess  constitutional 
vigor,  so  must  the  parent  stock. 

The  Male.  He  should  be  a  bird  of  good  general  appearance, 
low-set,  broad,  deep,  with  vigorous  stylish  carriage,  and  should 
possess  the  size  and  color  and  other  characters  that  go  to 
make  up  the  breed. 

A  medium  length,  broad,  strongly  curved  beak,  a  wide 
head,  a  large,  full,  bright  eye  and  medium  length  of  neck 
are  indications  of  constitutional  vigor  and  good  feeding  qual- 
ities. A  long,  slender  beak,  small,  sunken  eye,  long,  narrow 
head  and  slim  neck  go  with  delicacy  of  constitution  and 
should  be  discriminated  against. 

A  long,  straight,  shallow  breast  bone  with  a  covering  of 
muscle  to  give  it  a  plump  appearance  is  what  is  desired.  A 
deep,  angular  breast  bone  gives  the  dressed  carcass  a  rough 
appearance  that  detracts  very  much  from  its  selling  price 
when  placed  on  the  market.  Thick-fleshed  white  breast  meat 
attracts  the  consumer. 

Broad  shoulders  are  looked  for  and  this  breadth  should  be 
carried  well  back  to  the  tail,  as  this  adds  to  the  size  and 
weight  and  gives  a  larger  bird  at  time  of  maturity.  The 
back  should  possess  only  medium  length,  as  this  gives  a 
plumper,  more  symmetrical  carcass. 

A  strong,  well-muscled  thigh  is  very  desirable,  not  because 
the  thigh  meat  is  the  best,  by  any  means,  but  strong,  well- 
muscled  thighs  usually  indicate  a  strong,  vigorous,  heavily- 
meated  bird.  The  legs  should  be  straight,  strong  and  set 
wide  apart.  The  bone  should  not  be  coarse,  but  it  should 


346  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

possess  sufficient  size  with  quality  to  carry  the  body  during 
his  period  of  usefulness.  If  the  leg  are  bent  in  at  the  joints 
it  is  an  indication  of  weakness  of  bone  and  also  of  constitution. 
He  should  be  thickly  covered  with  feathers  fine  in  quality. 

In  summing  up,  the  cock  should  be  a  vigorous,  low  down, 
thick,  blocky  bird,  with  an  abundance  of  breast  meat,  a  strong 
constitution,  strong,  straight  bone  and  a  wealth  of  plumage, 
and  should  weigh  8%  to  9%  pounds. 

The  Hen.  The  hen,  like  the  cock,  should  possess  a  pleasing 
general  appearance.  The  head  should  be  medium  short  and 
broad  with  a  medium  short,  strongly  curved  beak,  a  large, 
full,  bright  eye,  and  a  medium,  short,  strong  neck — indications 
of  strength  and  constitutional  vigor  and  easy  to  keep.  A  long, 
slim  beak,  sunken  eye  and  long  head  and  neck  are  indica- 
tions of  weakness  of  constitution.  The  breast  bone  should  be 
long,  straight  and  only  medium  depth,  with  a  plump  covering 
of  white  meat  to  give  the  round,  full  appearance  to  the  breast. 

Broad  shoulders,  with  width  carried  back  to  tail  and  a  me- 
dium length  of  back  are  very  desirable. 

The  thighs  should  be  large  and  plump;  made  so  by  a  large 
development  of  muscle. 

Short,  strong,  straight  legs  are  as  much  sought  for  in  the 
hen  as  in  the  cock.  Long,  weak,  knock-kneed  legs  do  not  go 
with  a  good  producer  of  either  eggs  or  cockerels  for  fat- 
tening. 

Then  hen,  too,  should  be  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of 
feathers  and  present  the  appearance  of  a  low-down,  blocky 
utility  female  weighing  from  7%  to  8  pounds. 


LECTURE  XCIII. 


IMPROVING  THE  FLOCK. 

Many  investigations  have  been  conducted  to  ascertain  the 
relative  value  of  pure-bred  and  scrub  poultry  as  economic 
producers  of  eggs  and  meat.  The  results  of  these  are  quite 
conclusive  in  favor  of  the  pure-bred.  In  the  production  of 
eggs  they  yield  a  larger  and  more  uniform  product.  As  a  mar- 
ket bird  the  pure-bred  gives  a  larger,  plumper,  juicier  carcass, 
more  uniform  in  size  and  color.  They  are  earlier  maturers 
and  put  on  flesh  more  economically. 

The  farmer  owning  a  flock  of  pure-bred  poultry  will  think 
much  more  of  them;  will  take  more  pride  in  them;  and  will 
consequently  give  them  the  care  and  attention  that  is  neces- 
sary for  one  to  realize  the  greatest  profit  from  any  class  of 
live  stock.  Knowing  these  facts,  it  follows  that  we  should 
seek  to  improve  our  poultry  either  by  establishing  a  pure- 
bred flock  or  by  carefully  and  intelligently  grading  up  the 
one  we  already  have. 

Dairy  farmers  have  been  busy  for  years  improving  their 
dairy  herds  by  increasing  the  quantity,  improving  the  quality, 
and  lengthening  out  the  period  of  lactation  of  the  individual 
cows  in  the  herd.  This  improvement  has  been  effected  by 
the  use  of  the  Babcock  test  and  scales  together  with  proper 
care  and  management  of  the  stock,  selection,  mating,  feed  and 
care. 

Cows  that  gave  a  good  account  of  themselves  at  the  pail 
(that  gave  at  least  6,000  pounds  of  milk  a  year)  were  kept 
as  breeders.  Heifers  were  saved  from  these  cows  and  were 
trained  to  milk  a  long  time.  Bulls  were  saved  from  good 
producing  cows  and  were  mated  with  heifers  from  good  milk- 
ers in  order  to  perpetuate  in  their  offspring  the  good  milking 
qualities  which  they  had  inherited  from  their  ancestors. 
Pure-bred  males  were  always  used  and  these  must  show  in 
their  pedigree  good  performing  ancestors  on  the  dam's  side 
even  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation. 

Now  the  same  plan  should  be  followed  in  the  improvement 
of  our  flocks. 


348  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

A  good  method  of  starting  a  pure-bred  flock  is  to  buy,  in 
the  spring,  from  some  reliable  source,  a  couple  of  sittings  of 
eggs  from  a  good  laying  strain  of  utility  fowls.  Be  sure  that 
the  strain  is  right,  for  there  are  good  strains  and  bad  strains. 
Strains  that  will  lay  in  winter;  strains  that  will  lay  ten  dozen 
eggs  a  year;  and  strains  that  will  not  lay  three  dozen;  strains 
that  will  want  to  sit  all  the  time,  and  strains  that  will  scarcely 
ever  ask  for  that  pleasure.  Some  strains  possess  early  ma- 
turing characters  without  coarseness,  while  there  are  others 
that  are  coarse,  ungainly  looking  fowls  no  matter  what  at- 
tention you  give  them.  All  these  strains,  and  many  others, 
may  be  found  in  the  same  breed,  depending  upon  the  methods 
that  have  been  employed  in  developing  them. 

Having  your  two  or  three  sittings  hatched  and  reared  in 
the  fall,  separate  the  cockerels  and  pullets.  You  will  likely 
be  able  to  dispose  of  the  pure-bred  cockerels  to  good  advan- 
tage to  your  neighbors,  if  they  are  from  the  right  kind  of 
stock.  If  you  cannot,  put  them  in  a  crate  and  get  them  ready 
for  market  .  Do  not  keep  them  at  any  rate.  Procure  a  cock- 
erel from  some  breeder  to  mate  with  your  best  bird  to  get 
your  eggs  for  your  next  crop  of  chickens. 

When  your  pullets  begin  to  lay  it  is  a  good  plan  to  pro- 
cure what  are  known  as  trap  nests.  By  using  these  you  will 
be  able  to  keep  a  record  of  each  hen's  laying.  When  time 
for  mating  comes  shut  up  eight  or  ten  of  the  hens,  that  have 
proven  themselves  good  layers,  and  that  are  otherwise  suit- 
able, with  a  good  cock,  and  in  ten  days  eggs  may  be  saved  for 
hatching.  The  good  layers  may  be  marked  by  puncturing 
a  hole  in  the  web  of  the  foot  or  by  a  band  of  some  sort 
around  the  leg.  Never  allow  a  cock  to  run  with  hens,  except 
when  you  want  eggs  to  set,  and  then  only  with  the  breeding 
hens.  Set  the  eggs  under  brooding  hens,  as  mentioned  in  a 
preceding  lecture,  and  continue  making  selections  based  on 
type  and  performance.  Use  cocks  that  are  from  good  laying 
strains.  Feed  and  train  the  hens  so  that  they  will  increase 
their  egg  laying  propensity,  and  in  this  way  an  excellent  egg 
laying  strain  may  be  built  up  and  perpetuated.  Breed  only 
from  mature  hens. 

Grading  Up.  Many  farmers  have  already  some  good  laying 
hens  among  their  scrub  flock.  Cull  out  those  that  are  poor 
producers,  procure  a  PURE-BRED  cock  as  already  described, 
and  mate  him  with  the  good  layers.  Set  the  eggs  and  make 
careful  selection  in  the  fall.  Fatten  and  kill  ALL  the  cock- 


FLOCK  IMPROVEMENT.  349 

erels.  If  the  old  cock  has  given  a  good  account  of  himself, 
trade  him  with  some  breeder  for  another  of  equal  merit,  so 
that  you  will  not  have  to  in-breed  your  stock.  In-breeding  is 
likely  to  lead  to  weakness  in  your  stock,  though  it  is  used 
much  by  poultry  breeders  to  intensify  the  blood  and  cause 
greater  prepotency  in  the  transmission  of  desirable  charac- 
teristics in  producing  show  stuff.  By  following  this  system 
of  procuring  only  pure-bred  cocks  and  selecting  the  best  fe- 
males, in  four  or  five  years  you  will  have  a  high  grade  flock 
(practically  pure-bred  so  far  as  utility  is  concerned). 


LECTURE  XCIV. 


MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING    FOR    EGG    PRODUCTION. 

The  production  of  summer  eggs  is  not  a  difficult  matter  at 
all.  Nearly  every  farmer  with  his  ordinary  scrub  flock  will 
always  have  some  eggs  to  carry  to  market.  There  are  so  many 
producing  eggs  at  this  season  of  the  year  that  the  supply  is 
large  and  the  price  naturally  falls  until  there  is  very  little 
margin  left  for  the  producer. 

During  the  last  winter  we  have  seen  eggs  50  and  GO  cents 
per  dozen,  and  in  many  of  the  eastern  cities  the  price  reached 
even  a  higher  limit,  going  in  some  cases  to  75  cents.  This 
is,  of  course,  very  hard  on  the  consumer,  but  the  seller  reaps 
a  handsome  profit.  During  the  past  winter  there  was  a  great 
scarcity,  due  probably  in  part  to  a  reduced  number  of  laying 
pullets  on  account  of  cold,  wet  seasons  of  1903  and  1902,  when 
young  chicks  could  not  be  successfully  reared.  The  excep- 
tionally high  prices  of  the  winter  of  1904  can  be  accounted 
for  in  part,  but  taking  one  year  with  another  the  winter  egg 
is  the  one  that  yields  the  large  profit  to  the  producer,  and  it 
will  continue  to  do  so  for  sometime,  at  least,  until  a  very 
much  larger  number  of  men  have  learned  how  to  breed  and 
feed  for  winter  eggs. 

There  are  three  or  four  essentials  to  success  in  this  busi- 
ness. In  the  first  place,  we  must  have  the  right  breed.  Some 
breeds  are  naturally  summer  layers.  These  are  the  Leghorns, 
Andalusians,  Minorcas,  all  of  which  may  with  care  have  cer- 
tain strains  bred  for  winter  laying.  The  American  breeds, 
Rocks,  Wyandottes  and  the  English  Orpingtons,  are  better 
winter  layers.  In  choosing  a  breed  for  winter  layers  it  is 
better  to  select  one  from  the  last  three  named.  But  it  must 
be  kept  in  mind  that  more  depends  upon  the  strain  than  upon 
the  breed.  There  are  good  and  poor  laying  strains  in  every 
breed.  The  laying  character  depends  upon  the  breeding  and 
training  rather  than  upon  the  breed. 

Young  pullets  are  usually  the  best  winter  layers.  These  are 
obtained  by  having  chickens  hatched  along  the  middle  of 


EGG  PRODUCTION.  351 

April,  not  later  than  the  first  week  in  May.  These  birds,  if 
hurried  along  to  early  maturity,  should  arrive  at  that  stage 
not  later  than  six  to  seven  months  and  should  start  laying 
about  the  first  of  November.  You  cannot  expect  good  re- 
turns from  stock  that  is  weak  in  constitution  or  lacking  in 
vigor.  Select  strong,  matured  pullets  Gy2  to  7  months  of  age 
from  a  laying  strain  for  the  production  of  winter  eggs.  Keep 
a  record  of  these  pullets  and  mark  them  in  some  way  so  that 
the  best  ones  may  be  kept  the  next  winter  as  breeders  from 
which  to  raise  the  future  flock.  We  believe  that  "like  pro- 
duces like,"  so  that  by  breeding  from  these  good  layers  we 
shall  obtain  others  of  their  kind.  During  the  second  winter, 
these  that  are  being  retained  as  breeders  should  not  be  fed 
on  a  laying  ration  until  near  spring,  when  we  want  eggs  to 
set.  When  this  time  comes,  have  them  shut  up  with  a  cock 
from  a  good  laying  strain  and  feed  all  on  a  laying  ration.  Eggs 
set  from  these  hens  should  give  us  the  winter  layers  we  are 
seeking.  To  breed  this  kind  of  birds  will  require  the  patience 
and  perseverance  that  are  so  necessary  to  make  any  of  our 
live  stock  operations  a  success. 

Yearling  hens  that  moult  early  will  usually  give  a  good 
account  of  themselves  in  the  winter.  Some  poultry  men  man- 
age their  yearling  winter  layers  somewhat  as  follows:  In 
July  they  turn  them  into  a  grassy  enclosure,  where  they  re- 
ceive very  little  feed  except  grass  and  water  and  a  half  hand- 
ful of  grain  per  day.  These  hens  when  taken  in  and  fed  on 
a  laying  ration  will  usually  commence  laying  in  a  short  time. 
Hens  over  two  years  old  are  not  profitable  layers  except  in 
rare  cases  found  in  the  lighter  breeds.  Proper  housing  is 
necessary.  The  house  for  winter  laying  should  be  dry,  light, 
well  ventilated  and  comfortably  warm,  from  40  to  50  degrees. 
Fowls  are  better  to  be  in  cooler  quarters  that  are  dry,  light 
and  well  ventilated  than  in  warmer  quarters  lacking  these. 
The  housing  has  already  been  taken  up  quite  fully  in  the 
lecture  on  "poultry  houses,"  so  that  nothing  further  is  neces- 
sary here  except  to  add  that  every  precaution  be  taken  to 
add  to  the  comfort  of  the  fowls  in  the  way  of  nests  and  roosts. 
These  should  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  taken  out  easily 
to  be  cleaned  and  rid  of  vermin. 

Best  results  are  obtained  in  summer  by  keeping  the  hens 
enclosed  in  a  large  run  where  they  can  have  grass  and  ex 
ercise.  Each  hen  should  have  at  least  125  to  150  square  feet 
of  grass  to  pick  over. 


352  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

The  feeding  of  winter  layers  is  one  of  the  points  which 
is  commonly  overlooked.  You  may  be  ever  so  good  to  the 
best  laying  strains  of  pullets,  but  if  the  ration  is  not  carefully 
selected  you  will  have  no  eggs.  The  ration  of  the  laying  hen 
in  winter  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  like  that  obtained 
when  running  free  in  the  summer.  Grain,  vegetables  and  meat 
in  about  equal  parts  should  give  excellent  results.  The  grain 
should  be  a  mixture  of  barley,  oats,  crushed  peas,  and  buck- 
wheat, if  these  can  be  secured.  In  winter,  especially  when 
the  weather  is  cold,  corn  may  be  added.  Too  much  corn 
causes  the  hens  to  get  fat  and  lazy,  when  they  take  to  the 
perch  and  spend  most  of  their  time  there.  This  grain  mixture 
may  be  fed  to  advantage  early  in  the  morning,  or  late  at 
night.  It  should  be  scattered  around  in  the  litter  so  that  the 
hens  will  scratch  about  for  the  first  two  hours  of  the  morn- 
ing for  it,  thereby  gaining  sufficient  exercise  to  keep  them 
in  a  good  healthy  condition.  At  9  o'clock  they  should  be 
given  a  mash  made  by  mixing  about  equal  parts  of  bran, 
shorts,  ground  corn,  ground  clover,  or  alfalfa  leaves  which 
have  been  steamed.  In  winter  this  mash  is  made  by  mixing 
with  water  and  is  fed  warm.  In  summer  sour  milk  may  be 
used.  About  a  quart  of  this  is  fed  to  fifteen  hens. 

At  noon  they  should  receive  some  vegetable  food  such  as 
cabbage,  mangels,  turnips,  carrots  or  sprouts.  At  3  o'clock 
another  mash  should  be  given,  and  at  night  the  whole  grain 
should  be  scattered  in  the  litter  just  before  they  take  to  the 
roost. 

A  pound  of  ground  raw  bone  should  be  fed  twice  a  week  to 
fifteen  fowls.  Meat  should  be  given  them  regularly  at  noon. 
Boiled  liver,  beef  heads  and  such  like  will  supply  this  part  of 
the  ration  in  winter.  Animal  meal  and  blood  meal  mixed  with 
grain  about  1  to  1C  is  a  good  form  in  which  to  supply  this 
part  of  the  ration  in  summer,  as  the  other  forms  become 
putrid  in  hot  weather. 

Grit,  gravel,  oyster  shells  and  lime  should  be  supplied  in 
abundance.  Give  them  plenty  of  pure  water  to  drink  in  win- 
ter. Keep  them  in  good  healthy  condition  by  giving  them 
exercise  and  fresh  air.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  throw  the  doors 
open  a  good  part  of  the  day  so  long  as  the  fowls  are  kept 
moving  about  in  search  of  food.  Do  not  allow  the  hens' 
combs  to  freeze  as  this  will  stop  their  laying. 


LECTURE  XCV. 


FEED  STUFFS  SUITABLE  FOR  POULTRY. 

The  body  and  feathers  of  a  fowl  consist  of  water,  ash,  pro- 
tein and  fat;  so  it  is  clear  that  the  feed  supplied  must  con- 
tain the  compounds  that  will  supply  these.  About  one-half 
of  the  dry  matter  in  the  body  of  a  fowl  is  protein  and  about 
8  per  cent,  is  ash.  Investigations  made  by  Jenter  at  the  New 
York  Experiment  Station  show  that  the  body  of  a  Leghorn 
hen — body,  blood,  bones,  feathers  and  viscera — contains  55.8 
per  cent,  water,  21. G  per  cent,  protein,  3.8  per  cent,  ash,  and 
17  per  cent.  fat. 

A  fresh  egg  is  made  up  of,  shell,  11.4  per  cent.;  water,  G5.7 
per  cent.;  fat,  8.9  per  cent.;  protein,  between  11  and  13  per 
cent.  Of  the  total  dry  matter  in  an  egg,  including  the  shell, 
there  is  35.G  per  cent,  ash,  25.9  per  cent,  fat,  and  33  to  38  per 
cent,  protein. 

Carbohydrates  and  Fats.  These  supply  the  fat  forming  and 
heat  producing  compounds.  The  fats  are  capable  of  doing 
about  2.4  times  as  much  work  as  the  carbohydrates.  These 
are  contained  in  the  common  grains  used  as  feed  stuffs. 

Ash.  This  is  the  material  from  which  bone  and  shell  are 
built  up. 

Lime  is  the  compound  which  enters  so  largely  into  the  com- 
position of  the  egg  shell,  and  must  be  supplied  in  some  other 
way  than  in  the  ordinary  feeds — grain  and  grass. 

Animal  Feeds.  These  consist  of  highly  nitrogenous  feed 
stuffs  made  from  meat  scraps,  blood,  dried  fish  and  skim  milk. 

Waste  meat,  such  as  beef  heads,  scrap  and  other  waste 
products  may  be  fed  either  cooked  or  raw.  If  cooked,  the 
juices  in  which  the  meat  is  cooked  should  be  mixed  in  with 
the  mash. 

Dried  blood  is  a  concentrated  food  containing  a  large  per- 
centage of  protein.  It  can  be  fed  in  mashes  to  growing  chicks 
or  laying  hens.  It  should  be  mixed  1  part  to  16  of  meal. 

Ground  Raw  Bones.  If  raw  bones  are  ground  up  fine  so 
fowls  can  eat  them  they  are  much  relished. 


354  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

Milk.  Sour  skim  milk  and  buttermilk  are  both  excellent 
feeds  for  fattening  poultry  or  for  laying  hens.  Nothing  has 
been  found  that  will  satisfactorily  take  the  place  of  these 
feeds. 

Vegetable  Food.  In  compounding  a  ration  for  fowls,  vege- 
table foods  such  as  cabbage,  turnips,  mangels,  carrots,  clover 
and  alfalfa  serve  excellently  in  adding  to  the  bulk  and  suc- 
culence. Cabbage  may  be  suspended  from  the  ceiling  so  that 
it  will  hang  above  the  floor  within  reaching  distance  of  the 
fowls.  Working  at  this  they  obtain  much  necessary  exercise. 
Turnips  and  other  roots  may  be  suspended  in  like  manner 
or  they  may  be  fastened  on  a  nail  on  the  wall.  Clover  and 
alfalfa  are  very  suitable  for  litter.  Sometimes  fowls  take 
too  much  of  these  dry  vegetable  foods  and  as  a  result  their 
crops  become  impacted. 

Grains.  Of  the  grains  there  are  many  that  are  very  suit- 
able. The  kinds  for  you  to  use  are  the  ones  that  are  most 
easily  and  cheaply  obtained.  Wheat  is  the  food  par  excel- 
lence for  hens.  Corn  is  also  a  very  excellent  food  for  poultry. 
It  is,  of  course,  a  fattening  food  and  should  be  fed  as  such. 
It  is  better  to  feed  it  cracked  or  ground.  Cracked  corn 
sprinkled  among  the  litter  keeps  the  hens  scratching  to  find 
these  nutty  morsels,  and  in  this  way  they  obtain  much  valu- 
able exercise.  Ground  corn  may  be  fed  to  advantage  with 
other  grains  in  mashes.  Whole  corn  is  large  and  easily  seen) 
and  does  not  afford  the  exercise  in  the  search  for  it. 

Oats,  with  the  hulls  on,  are  somewhat  bulky,  and  on  this 
account  are  not  so  desirable  in  this  entire  form;  but  when 
hulled  the  oat  grain  for  growing  or  fattening  poultry  is  very 
excellent. 

Buckwheat  partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  corn  and 
is  a  good  fattening  food.  In  order  to  accustom  hens  to  it, 
it  is  well  to  boil  it  for  them  the  first  two  or  three  times. 
After  that  they  will  usually  take  to  it  readily.  Sometimes  it 
is  necessary  to  starve  them  a  day  in  order  to  get  them  to 
eat  it  the  first  time. 

Barley  on  account  of  its  course  hulls  is  better  to  be  ground 
and  fed  in  mashes  with  other  grains.  It,  too,  is  somewhat 
of  a  fattening  food. 

Bran  and  shorts  serve  an  excellent  purpose  in  a  poultry 
ration  in  that  besides  furnishing  growing  material  they  tend 
to  keep  the  digestive  system  in  a  good,  healthy  condition. 
There  are  many  seeds,  too,  around  the  farm  that  can  be  used 


FEEDING  STUFFS  FOR  POULTRY.  355 

to  good  advantage  in  the  feeding  of  poultry.  It  must  be  kept 
in  mind  that  variety  in  the  rations  is  the  secret  of  much  of 
the  success  in  poultry  feeding. 

Lime.  A  large  amount  of  lime  must  be  utilized  by  laying 
hens  in  the  manufacture  of  shells.  This  can  be  furnished 
them  in  winter  or  summer,  if  confined,  by  giving  them  finely 
pounded  oyster  shells,  lime  or  previously  dried  egg  shells. 
The  egg-eating  habit  is  oftentimes  forced  upon  hens  by  our 
failing  to  furnish  them  with  the  necessary  elements  for  the 
structure  of  shells. 

Grit.  A  hen  has  no  teeth.  Her  food  is  masticated  in  what 
we  call  the  gizzard.  This  is  a  strong,  muscular  sack  with  a 
tough  membranous  lining.  This  sack  contains  numerous 
small,  sharp,  hard  stones  which  serve  to  crush  and  grind  up 
the  food  that  must  pass  through  it.  When  hens  are  confined 
they  should  be  furnished  with  coarse  coal  ashes  or  gravel  in 
order  that  they  may  be  able  to  secure  the  necessary  "grit" 
with  which  to  grind  their  food. 

Pure,  fresh  water  should  be  supplied  in  abundance  at  all 
times.  Galvanized  drinking  tanks  can  be  had  at  a  very  mod- 
erate cost. 


LECTURE  XCVI. 


REARING  CHICKS— FEED,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

The  little  chicks  should  have  a  good  start  when  they  first 
emerge  from  the  shell  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  make 
the  best  of  their  opportunities  afterward.  In  giving  them 
this  start  we  have  an  important  part  to  perform  in  seeing 
that  the  parent  stock  are  fed  and  managed  so  that  they  will 
produce  eggs  possessing  highly  vitalized  germs.  To  do  this 
we  must  furnish  them  plenty  of  vegetable  and  animal  food 
and  an  abundance  of  pure,  fresh  air.  The  egg  chosen  to  give 
birth  to  the  chick  should  be  large  and  be  covered  with  a 
sound  shell.  The  egg  should  be  set  under  a  hen  that  has 
given  evidence  that  she  will  be  a  good  mother.  Strong, 
healthy  chicks  when  hatched  may  soon  succumb  to  the  at- 
tacks of  parasites — the  three  varieties  of  lice  that  infest 
fowls.  Precautions  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  ravages 
of  these  pests.  Do  not  set  a  hen  in  an  old  nest,  as  it  is  al- 
most sure  to  be  infested.  Put  a  moth  ball,  some  tansy  or 
sulphur  in  the  nest  before  placing  the  eggs  under  the  hen. 
Dust  insect  powder  into  the  feathers  of  the  brooding  hen 
two  or  three  times  during  her  sitting  period.  Take  a  cloth 
that  has  been  moistened  with  coal  oil  and  rub  it  over  the  hen's 
breast.  These  precautionary  measures  should  kill  all  lice  that 
may  have  infested  either  the  hen  or  the  nest.  If  the  future 
quarters  are  well  removed  from  the  hen  house  and  kept  clean 
there  should  te  no  trouble  from  lice.  After  the  little  chick 
is  born  warmth  is  much  more  necessary  than  food.  He  re- 
quires a  temperature  of  at  least  90  degrees  F.,  and  this  will 
be  furnished  by  the  hen  if  the  chicks  are  left  in  the  nest  with 
her.  No  food  is  required  by  the  chick  for  thirty-six  hours 
after  it  is  hatched.  Nature  has  provided  for  it,  so  that  we 
need  not  concern  ourselves  in  regard  to  his  diet  until  this 
period  of  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  hours  has  elapsed.  Many 
chickens  are  lost  from  the  attack  of  diarrhoea.  This  is  caused 
by  giving  them  cold  water  to  drink,  sloppy  food  or  by  allow- 
ing draughts  to  blow  over  them.  "An  ounce  of  prevention  is 


REARING  CHICKENS.  357 

worth  a  pound  of  cure."  When  the  chicks  are  thirty  to  thirty- 
six  hours  old  remove  them  with  the  mother  to  a  small  coop 
that  has  been  previously  constructed,  rain-proof  on  top,  back 
and  sides,  with  vertical  slats  2y2  inches  apart  in  front.  This 
may  be  conveniently  made  of  a  dry  goods  box  two  feet  square 
and  two  feet  deep,  or  it  may  be  built  on  a  more  elaborate 
plan  if  time  can  be  spared  and  tools  and  materials  are  at 
hand.  Place  the  coop  out  on  a  grassy  sod  and  place  around 
it  an  enclosure  about  as  large  as  a  wagon  box,  8  to  10  inches 
high.  After  a  week  this  may  be  removed  and  the  chicks  al- 
lowed free  range  within  call  of  the  mother  hen,  which  is  kept 
in  confinement. 

When  placed  in  their  new,  clean  quarters  give  them  their 
first  meal  prepared  as  follows:  Take  about  equal  parts  of 
onions,  hard  boiled  eggs  and  dry  bread.  Chop  everything  fine, 
including  the  shells  of  the  eggs.  Do  not  moisten  with  any- 
thing. Feed  this  ration  dry  for  two  or  three  days,  when  oat- 
meal may  be  substituted  for  the  bread  and  some  meat  scraps 
or  boiled  liver  in  the  place  of  the  onions  and  eggs.  Give  them 
tepid  water  to  drink.  Cold  water  is  apt  to  cause  digestive 
troubles  which,  if  once  provoked,  are  likely  to  cause  serious 
losses.  If  little  chicks  are  confined,  grit  should  be  mixed  in 
their  food.  Sand  and  gravel  should  be  always  at  their  com- 
mand. At  ten  days  to  two  weeks  old  they  should  have  scat- 
tered in  their  litter  a  mixture  composed  of  five  parts  cracked 
wheat,  three  parts  finely  cracked  corn,  two  parts  millet.  This 
will  keep  them  scratching  and  will  afford  them  exercise,  which 
is  all-important  to  the  growth  and  development  of  healthy 
chicks.  Twice  a  day,  now,  they  should  receive  a  mash  com- 
posed of  one  part  cornmeal,  one  part  oatmeal  and  one  part 
bran  mixed  with  sour  milk.  When  fed  the  milk  should  be 
squeezed  from  it  and  the  mixture  crumbled  to  them  from  the 
hand.  Succulent  food  must  be  supplied  and  may  be  furnished 
by  giving  them  lettuce,  turnip,  mangel,  carrot  or  potato 
sprouts;  sometimes  grain  sprouts  are  fed.  The  chicken's  ra- 
tion should  consist  of  about  one-third  grain,  one-third  vege- 
table and  one-third  animal  food.  If  the  chicks  are  confined 
and  cannot  range  about  in  search  of  bugs  and  worms,  you 
must  furnish  a  supply  of  animal  food  in  the  ration.  Feed  them 
meat  scraps,  fresh  boiled  liver  or  you  may  add  animal  or 
blood  meal  to  the  grain  about  1  to  16.  We  must  keep  in  mind 
that  for  the  first  few  days  and  weeks  in  the  chick's  life  there 
is  a  great  drain  on  the  system  in  order  to  provide  material 


358  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

for  the  growth  of  bone,  muscle  and  feathers.  Fat  producing 
foods  such  as  corn  will  not  supply  the  materials  necessary  to 
the  rapid  upbuilding  of  these  parts,  but  it  will  supply  the 
fuel  and  energy  producing  elements.  The  chick  when  hatched 
from  the  shell  will  weigh  less  than  two  ounces.  At  ten  weeks 
old  it  should  weigh  nearly  two  pounds.  At  this  rate  there 
has  been  an  increase  of  about  1,700  per  cent.,  an  enormous 
increase  in  so  short  a  time. 


LECTURE   XCVII. 


FATTENING,    KILLING   AND    PREPARING   POULTRY    FOR 
MARKET. 

There  is  usually  excellent  sale  for  birds  properly  fitted  and 
prepared  for  the  market.  Creamy  white  flesh  is  more  desir- 
able on  most  markets  than  yellow  flesh.  Birds  weighing 
about  four  pounds  when  finished  bring  the  highest  prices. 
Large,  coarse  birds  are  not  so  attractive;  besides,  they  are 
more  wasteful.  Birds  with  deep,  angular  breast  bones  have 
to  be  fed  longer  to  make  them  look  well,  and  so  are  more 
costly  feeders. 

Select  young,  plump  birds  weighing  three  and  one-half 
pounds,  or  thereabouts,  three  and  one  half  to  four  months  old. 
These  are  placed  in  crates  made  somewhat  as  follows:  they 
are  six  feet  six  inches  long,  twenty  inches  high,  and  sixteen 
inches  deep,  and  are  divided  into  three  compartments  by  solid 
partitions.  The  top  sides  and  bottom  are  made  of  one  and 
one-half  inch  slats,  one-half  inch  thick.  The  slats  on  the  back, 
top  and  bottom  run  lengthwise,  while  those  in  front  are  placed 
up  and  down  two  inches  apart,  so  as  to  allow  the  birds  to 
run  their  heads  through  them  at  feeding  time.  The  slats  on 
the  bottom  are  three-fourths  inch  apart,  so  that  the  drop- 
ping will  fall  through.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  last 
slat  is  not  placed  tight  against  the  back,  so  that  the  droppings 
may  fall  through  instead  of  lodging  there.  If  the  droppings 
lodge  in  the  crates  they  decompose  and  the  crates  become  foul. 
Slat  doors  are  placed  in  front.  A  "V"  shaped  trough  two  and 
one-half  inches  deep  is  placed  along  in  front  to  hold  their  feed. 

The  crates  may  in  warm  weather  be  placed  out  of  doors, 
if  covered  so  as  to  protect  them  from  rain.  In  cold  weather 
they  should  be  placed  in  a  warm,  dark  place.  The  fatten- 
ing period  should  not  cover  more  than  four  weeks  at  most. 
After  that  time  feeding  is  very  expensive  and  only  the  rougher 
sort  of  birds  will  require  the  long  period,  hence  the  necessity 
for  choosing  a  right  type  of  bird. 

See  that  all  birds  are  well  dustM  with  sulphur  before 
crating. 


360  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT. 

The  birds  should  be  fed  lightly  for  the  first  week  three  times 
a  day.  After  that  they  may  be  given  all  they  will  take  twice 
a  day.  Keep  them  well  supplied  with  grit.  .Pure,  fresh  water 
should  be  given  them  twice  a  day  to  drink.  Clean  the  troughs 
one-half  hour  after  feeding.  Four  to  five  birds,  according  to 
size,  may  be  placed  in  each  compartment. 

Birds  take  on  flesh  much  faster  and  more  economically 
when  fed  in  crates  than  when  allowed  to  run  at  large  or  even 
in  pens. 

A  good  fattening  ration  may  be  composed  of  two  parts 
ground  corn,  two  parts  ground  buckwheat,  and  one  part 
ground  oats  made  into  a  mush  with  sour  milk  or  buttermilk; 
or  two  parts  ground  barley,  two  parts  ground  corn,  and  one 
part  ground  oats,  mixed  with  milk;  or  ground  oats  without  the 
hulls,  mixed  with  milk.  When  milk  cannot  be  had,  add  animal 
or  blood  meal  about  1  to  16  grain,  and  mix  with  water.  Add 
a  half  ounce  of  salt  to  150  chicks  twice  a  week. 

During  the  last  week's  feeding  a  little  tallow  may  be  added 
to  the  ration,  one  pound  for  seventy  to  eighty  birds.  Too 
much  corn  in  the  ration  colors  the  flesh  yellow. 

Whsn  the  fattening  period  is  over,  which  should  be  at  the 
end  of  three  and  one-half  to  four  weeks,  starve  the  birds  from 
thirty  to  thirty-six  hours  before  killing,  in  order  to  allow  time 
for  all  food  in  crop  and  intestines  to  be  removed.  If  the  food 
is  left  in  the  bird  it  decomposes  and  taints  the  flesh. 

Killing  is  dene  in  two  ways.  The  plan  most  in  favor  is  to 
dislocate  the  neck.  This  is  done  by  holding  the  legs  of  the 
bird  firmly  in  the  left  hand  just  over  the  operator's  hip,  with 
the  back  of  the  bird  toward  you.  Seize  the  head  of  the  bird 
with  the  right  hand,  the  forefinger  back  of  the  neck,  the 
crown  of  the  bird  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  the  other  three 
fingers  in  front  under  the  head.  Draw  the  head  down  over 
the  right  knee,  stretch  the  neck  and  bend  the  head  backwards, 
dislocating  the  neck.  Draw  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  neck, 
hold  the  head  down  so  as  to  allow  the  blood  to  collect  in  the 
neck.  This  method  of  killing  gives  a  juicier,  better  flavored 
product  than  does  that  of  letting  the  blood  out  by  cutting 
deeply  with  a  sharp  pointed  knife  into  the  roof  of  the  chicken's 
mouth  just  below  the  eyes  (from  the  inside  course). 
s  Plucking  should  begin  immediately  after  the  neck  is  broken. 
Pull  the  quill  feathers  of  the  tail  and  wings,  strip  the  back, 
wings  and  breast.  Never  allow  the  chicken  to  cool  before 
plucking,  as  the  flesh  is  sure  to  tear  if  plucked  cold.  Leave 


MARKETING  POULTRY.  361 

a  couple  of  inches  of  feathers  on  the  neck  nearest  the  head, 
a  little  ruff  around  the  hocks  and  last  joint  at  tip  of  wing. 
Pluck  all  the  rest  clean,  leaving  no  pin  feathers.  Do  not  tear 
the  flesh.  If  you  should  happen  to  do  so  in  your  hurry,  be  sure 
to  draw  the  skin  together  with  a  white  thread.  Leave  your 
bird  looking  as  attractive  as  possible.  As  soon  as  you  have 
finished  plucking  fold  the  legs  up  along  the  breast  and  place 
the  bird  breast  down  in  a  shaping  board,  cover  with  a  paper 
and  place  on  its  back  a  brick  or  iron.  The  shaping  board  is 
made  with  inch  lumber.  It  is  simply  a  right  angled  trough 
six  inches  deep  and  six  feet  long.  It  should  be  tipped  up  a 
little  and  the  birds  placed  in  it  side  by  side  with  weights  to 
press  them  into  shape.  Allow  them  to  cool  twelve  to  twenty 
hours  before  packing.  They  should  be  packed  neatly  in  a  box 
three  feet  long,  twelve  inches  deep  and  twelve  inches  wide. 
The  box  should  be  lined  with  parchment  paper  to  keep  the 
fowl  clean  and  dry.  Pine  or  basswood  make  good  boxes. 
Cedar  is  apt  to  taint  the  meat. 

Having  a  first-class  product,  you  should  aim  to  have  it  reach 
the  best  customers  in  order  that  your  products  may  have  a 
ready  market.  Always  have  the  best  article  and  there  will  be 
no  danger  in  regard  to  its  disposition  at  a  good  remuneration. 


JU    5    1904 


FOURTEEN  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


JUN 15 1955  III 


06  1993 


AUTO  DISC  CIRC   JUL05 


LD  21-100m-2,'55 
(B139s22)476 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

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YB  09851 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


